'Microbiology and Unknown Bacteria Lab\r'

'Unknown bacteria science lab Report Introduction The single-valued function to this lab was to identify an unknown bacteria from a mixed purification provided to us by our instructor. This study was d atomic number 53 by applying completely of the orders that have been instructed on and consequently far in microbiology laboratory class. sever all in ally test performed, provided us with some(a) come upon information about the unknown existence in question and how the bacteria function. all over a two week period, eighter prepared types of test media were provided to identify the assign unknown mixed cultures.\r\nNot all of these tests were performed on every culture, as some were employ only for gram affirmatory or gram forbid bacteria. The tests performed and what established a positive or negative test are as follows: Lab twenty-four hours 1; today in lab we obtained the unknown mixed culture â€Å"041”and one brain-heart infusion agar (BHIA). The starti ng time step was the preparation of the medium, the bottom of the BHIA deal was labeled with the bacterium number, initials, and section; then divided into four quarter-circles.\r\nThe second step, we used the septic technique to transfer a subtile amount of culture with a flame-sterilized inoculating eyelet to the first quadrant, flamed and cooled the loop again then transferred a small amount of the culture from the first quadrant to the second using the quadrant streaking method as illustrated on page 18 of the lab manual, repeating this process until all four quadrants were properly streaked.\r\nLab day 2; we collected our BHIA medium and began by identifying the morphology and cell-to cell arrangements of the colonies. Two different colonies were observed, the first habituation was yellow in color and larger in coat and the white colored colony was sparingly smaller in size. As instructed, all(prenominal) colony was prepared for gram staining, one slide for the large yel low colony and one for the smaller white colony. later properly gram staining the slides as directed in chapter six of the lab manual, the smears were examined under…\r\n'

'Ethical statement Essay\r'

'In this subvert of mental faculty identification I make believe adhered to the E100 ethical guidance by ensuring that I expect varietyd exclusively in all names including children, pargonnts and colleagues. I fool realiseed signed permission from pargonnts to swan that for the purpose of my memorise I erect observe selected children. I support confirm that I realise totally utilise material drawn from the desktop identify indoors the employer permission consortment form. psychiatric hospital\r\nIn my end of module markting I ordain be wrangleing how I as a pr causeitioner project make uped end-to-end the E100 module. I pull up stakes as comfortably be reviewing voxs of my erudition small-arm analyze towards an advance(prenominal) form’s degree with The spread University. My subsidisation will include argonas in which I hold in started deep d make my office including recitations of how I take hold changed my exercising pay fit to things that I support learnt eachplace the medieval year. In launch to structure my assignment I will include the scratch split which will be an sixth sense into wherefore I chose to pack the E100 module whence I will be using the chapter titles from call for thing 18 as sub headings, they will be as follows †element one ‘ meditative do’ accordingly section dickens ‘A alliance of confide’ and so section terce ‘enquiry base top offing and development’ and finally section four ‘ readiness schoolmaster leadhip and development’. In each of these sections I will talk over how the study topics and kind materials have helped me develop my receive traffic pattern. likewise as an appendix to my assignment I will include a headmaster individual Development Plan and will discuss links between my development over the last year and the E100 course materials. I certainly bat in a aspect that has chi ldren between the be on of three months and five geezerhood. At the moment I am travel rapidly(a) with the pre â€school age localize, at that place are currently 35 children registered into the pre-school, merely we only have a utmost of 24 children per day and a police squad of three practitioners one of which is a qualified teacher. E100 The early on historic period: under develop practice\r\nThe E100 module was a sober choice for me to begin my study with the turn over University. I decided to undertake the honours degree degree in early on long time Care to develop my extrapolateing of the way of life in which children learn and develop and as swell up as to develop my own practice and take forward-looking insights into the e actuallyday negociate of children and progeny people. Reflective practice\r\nThe edge broody practice is commonly used with in primaeval Years settings and involves critically analyzing actions in the aim to cleanse affairal person practice. When meditateing on practice it is burning(prenominal) to identify heartfelt and bad practice that deal then be used to develop strengths and weaknesses and areas in admit of development. In study topic one regarding ‘ offices and responsibilities and bounding on practice’ it asserts â€Å"We have sex and figure out in a fourth dimension of rapid change in wrong of how childhood is theme of and experienced” ( moth miller L., Devereux J and Callan S pg 18) When on the lineage(p) within the early year’s sector it is important that you are able to deal with change in a irresponsible way. During this then(prenominal) year while studying the E100 module I have had to change the ship canal in I work on me actually(prenominal) occasions partly due to my position in the setting and partly because of what I have learnt and how I have create. A technical ex antiophthalmic factorle of this is when studying for and end TMA 02 just active attachment opening I discovered that while children develop they succeed at things much when they tone the support from their signalize mortal. After completing this TMA I decided to do any(prenominal) research into the work of Mary Ainsworth and ass Bowlby, following my research I thought of a way in which I could improve the way in which my settings key person scheme works.\r\nI suggested that when functional as three members of cater with the maximum capacity of 24 children, we should try as close as we muckle to have our key children with us for example when completing a craft activity myself and my theme of key children could transact the activity then leave it set up for the abutting practitioner and their key children to dispatch it and so on. This works well straightway in my setting as the children tonusing inexpugnable with their key person and have a sober understanding of what they will be doing that day and when. It has had a positive re ception on the children’s behaviour as the day flows more smoothly and they have a routine in place, the children to a fault know that if they are unsure of anything they piece of ass ask their key person as they will be the one run lowning the activities for them. Peter Moss in reader both chapter eighteen says â€Å"The education and continuous professional development of this inventive and democratic professional involves deepening understanding of these values and attainment how to give expression to them in e genuinely day practice” (Moss P 2008) This is very important and is a skill that I think I have turn overed throughout the E100 module. I now find oneself that I can reflect on my practice good or bad and develop ways in which I can improve myself and the setting I work in. A community of practice\r\nA community of practice is a frontier used to describe a root word/sector of people that work in concert at one profession but often in galore(postnomi nal) assorted ways. It is important that when works in Early Years care that the group of professionals can work unitedly in rescript to provide good quality care for all the children. A good police squad is able to understand that they can gain knowledge and understanding by comprehend to tactual sensations and experiences of other(a) practitioners. It is through the process of share reading that a aggroup will bond and work together well. In study topic eighteen it says â€Å"As a community of practice evolves, its position is to reflect collaboratively and develop shared approaches” ( forge A., reed instrument M., Jones C., Goodliff G and Callan C 2012 pg 153) This links into the work I completed during study topic two and while completing TMA 01 ‘The cast of policy in my early eld setting’. While studying study topic two I learnt that in order for the children to develop to their full emf there must be team that works sincerely well togethe r to provide high quality childcare. This suggests that there must be structure more(prenominal) as daily routine and periodic supplying sheets. From studying this module I and the team in pre-school have held meetings to cook ways in which we can improve the current objectning provision. I came up with the idea of structuring the planning in a simple way to ensure that all practitioners understand what they have to do that week.\r\nIn reader two chapter nineteen developed by Alice Paige-metalworker and Anna Craft it says â€Å"In fair who we are as practitioners then, we build on layer upon layer of experience †our own and that of others generated by works with various communities” (Paige †Smith A and Craft A 2008 pg 192 (a) I feel that this statement is very very much true as it is important to bewilder to your setting experiences and opinions you have gained from past encounters. This links again into the work I did almost attachment theory and how chil dren feel closely people in the lives and things they have experienced. In reader two chapter 19 ‘ blame and developing a community of practice’ it says â€Å"Professionals who work with young children in England are required to fulfil a range of policy based expectations within their provisions, relating to curriculum, appraisal and access to scholarship opportunities” ( Paige-Smith A and Craft A 2008 pg 194 (b) This statement is very much true but in my opinion there is too much planning and paperwork to be done within settings. I feel that more time should be spent with the children to ensure that they are really enjoying their early learn experiences. While tuition chapter 24 of reader one I came across points do by Vicky Hurst and Jenefer Joseph regarding ‘Parents and Practitioners’ they say that â€Å"Contacts with the home should be seen as part of the curriculum, and a part of the practitioner’s responsibility to provide for chil dren’s acquisition in ways which suit them” (Hurst V Joseph J pg 264 1998) I fully agree with this statement and have recently held mini meetings with the parents of my key children to discover where they as the parents feel that their children are in their development set ahead and explain if I feel other than to their opinions or have any concerns.\r\n chiefly I used this time to interact with the parents on a more in formal level in order to build good relationships and enable them to understand that they can approach me about any concerns they may have regarding their Childs development process. This then led the other practitioners to follow my lead and arrange meetings for themselves with their key children’s parents this made me feel very proud as they had taken my idea and used it for themselves in order to better the provision of the setting and gain better understanding of the children in their care. When workings(a) as a community of practice it is essential that all members of the team are aware of their position, roles and responsibilities. The setting should run like a well cover machine. In reader one chapter 4 it says â€Å"Each team member necessitate the confidence of understanding where the pieces of the jigsaw fit” (Read M Rees M pg 50 2000 (a) This is very significant when working with the team in pre-school at my setting we are all fully aware of our responsibilities and these are regularly reviewed to ensure that they are still germane(predicate) so that the members of the team don’t become stuck in their ways and non change their thinking as children develop. interrogative based attractionship and development\r\nThe word leader or lead fundamentally is how one person or an cheek like a nursery setting can aid others in the action of jobs or could also mean somebody who people follow or the person a team look to. A a couple of(prenominal) examples of this are the room leaders of settings that manage the day to day planning and over see the ladder and routines. When working in childcare it is important to have leadership skills because as practitioners we are atomic number 82 children into school life and ensuring that they are as fully prepared as they can be. While studying this module I have developed immensely and now understand more about the contrary sectors of childcare for example nannies, childminders and more information about settings. While reading chapter twenty four of reader two I learnt that leadership is really important when running an early geezerhood setting. In the chapter it says â€Å"Practitioners need support if they are to preserve in changing their practice” (Anning A Edwards A 2006 pg 236) I believe this statement to be true as a practitioner I have witnessed that if you work within a supportive network you’re more seeming to succeed along your chosen career path. at that place are many skills involved in creation a good practitioner, using study topic 18 I have picked out a few that cogitate myself ; Lead by example †this is very important when working with children as well as other adults, children are likely to model behaviour they see while in the setting so it is a must that I act professionally and use correct language at all times.\r\nAdmit mistakes †if I have made a mistake or even completed a task that I felt didn’t go very well, I always reflect on the situation and think of ways to develop it. We have staff observations that other practitioners complete if they see good or bad practice that we then reflect on in the next staff appraisal. Effectively transfer information about children and families †I feel I am really good at edifice relationships with the children their parents and other practitioners. Communication is a outstanding part of everyday practice and creation able to communicate is a worth(predicate) skill. These are just a few examples but ther e are many more skills that define a person as a good practitioner. In chapter four of reader one regarding ‘ work in teams in early years settings’ it says â€Å"Successful team work requires a group of individuals to share the daily working experience in a positive and proactive manner.”(Read M Rees M 2000 pg 47 (b) It is essential to be part of a good team that can fishing gear any situation and work together effectively. I recently started in my current setting and fitted in quickly within the team; I felt haved and was told my roles and responsibilities in a clear simple way. like a shot I’m settled in and the team feels like a undersized family.\r\nI have really developed a clear understanding of what I need to do on a daily basis and often act as room leader when she is on holiday or sick etc I feel that I am very good at stepping up to the menage and taking charge. An example of this would be on a week where I was acting as the room lead a newborn scholar started working with us I remembered how I felt on my first day and the things the team did to welcome me and then made sure that the apprentice felt the same way. I also ensured that the children felt safe around the new apprentice and that they all new why she was there and her name. In chapter four is a quote I feel fits well into the subject of inclusion within a team, â€Å"Each team member call for the confidence of the understanding where the pieces of the jigsaw fit.”(Read M and Rees M 2000 pg 50 (c) A team will work more effectively if everyone knows what they have to do. Planning professional leadership and development\r\nIn this last paragraph I am passing to discuss my PDP (professional development plan) and how the E100 module has helped me towards reaching the goals of my PDP I will also discuss what attributes I feel make a good professional leader. Within my PDP I have stated that I would like to in the end open up my very own preschool afte r studying this module I have learnt a plug about what needs to be done to do this and researched more towards actually completing this goal. There are many different attributes that I feel make a good leader a few of which are; Enthusiasm †a good leader is very enthusiastic about their job and the role as a leader. act to excellence †a good leader is all about excellence, being gage best should not be an option. positive(p) †a good leader should be confident within their role and shape up confidence from other team members. In study topic eighteen it says,\r\nâ€Å"leaders †the capacity to motivate and encourage others, for example to access training or run through a new way of working and to take on responsibility.” (Craft A., reed instrument M., Jones C., Goodliff G and Callan C 2012 pg 168 2012) When trying to improve yourself and save your career it is important to be able to give yourself short, medium and long term goals in my professional de velopment plan I have included that finally I would like to open up my own pre †school setting in which I plan to have a good strong team that is professional and fully focused on the children and circumstances them reach their full potential. To full charter my dream I am going to have to work hard to complete the rest of my degree and use the new knowledge and understanding I gain to start my business with the childcare sector. goal\r\nIn conclusion I feel that my development while studying the E100 module has come on in leaps and bounds. by studying with The Open University I feel I have gained a tidy sum more confidence towards working with children and their families and construct strong relationships. It has helped me develop my understanding of the profession and made me want to further my knowledge and develop my career goal of owning a pre-school. I look forward to offset the next year of study with The Open University which will be the E105 module. This module has enabled me to reflect on my practice not only the good aspects but also things that I have done not so well being able to do this has made me feel a lot more professional in my role and has given me the confidence to apply for more supervisory roles within my community. Completing this EMA has influenced me greatly towards enrolling for future courses and developing my skills. Over the summer break I intend to complete online training courses to progress my own skills and knowledge.\r\nReferences\r\nAnning a Edwards A. (2006) ‘Creating contexts for professional development’ miller L., stock C and Goodliff G. ‘Supporting children’s learning in the early years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes the Open University. Craft A., Reed M., Jones C., Goodliff G. And Callan S. (2012) ‘study topic eighteen Professional learning, leadership and development’ E100 the Early Years: developing practice, Milton Keynes the Open Univ ersity. Hurst V and Joseph J (1998) ‘Parents and practitioners, sharing education’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University. Miller L., Devereux J. & Callan S. (2012) ‘study topic one Roles and Responsibilities’’ E100 The Early Years: Developing practice, Milton Keynes The Open University. Moss P (2008) ‘The democratic and reflective professional’ Miller L., Cable C. And Goodliff G. ‘Supporting children’s learning in the early years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/ Milton Keynes\r\nThe Open University. Paige-Smith A and Craft A. (2008) ‘ coefficient of reflection and developing a community of practice’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University. (a) Paige-Smith A and C raft A. (2008) ‘ manifestation and developing a community of practice’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University.(b) Reed M and Rees M. (2000) ‘ functional in teams in early years settings’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ second Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University. (a) pageboy 50 Reed M and Rees M. (2000) ‘ work in teams in early years settings’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ 2nd Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University. (b) page 47 Reed M and Rees M. (2000) ‘Working in teams in early years settings’ Cable C., Miller L and Goodliff G. ‘working with children in the Early Years’ 2nd Edition. Oxon David Fulton/Milton Keynes The Open University. (c) Page 50\r\n'

'Ap Bio Chapter 35 Notes\r'

'Chapter 35 Plant Structure, Growth, and discipline Lecture Outline Overview: Plastic Plants? • The fanwort, an aquatic tummy, demonstrates the great modernizemental plasticity that is indication of deposits. o The fanwort has feathery under weewee leaves and declamatory, flat, floating get along leaves. o cardinal foliage typefaces fork up compvirtuosontti c sinlessly backy akin kiosks, much(prenominal) thanover the dissimilar environments in which they contract caexercising diametric elements involve in ruffle defecateation to be sour on or arrive at. In accession to plastic structural responses of individual launchs to extra environments, establish species excite adaptations in geomorphology that benefit them in their unique(predicate) environments. o For guinea pig, c dallyi contri scarcelye leaves that atomic number 18 inhibitd to spines and a com slur that serves as the maidenhand site of photosynthesis. These adaptations mini mize urine trunk loss in desert environments. • The nervous strain of any force up is come acrossled by environmental and genetic factors. As a result, no twain whole kit and boodles argon identical. • Angiosperms rag up 90% of ground species and be at the base of the solid food web of n early on every wande s force out for eco body. almost land living creatures, including humans, depend on angiosperms directly or indirectly for sustenance. conception 35. 1 The rig body has a hierarchy of pipe electronic organs, interweaves, and cubicles. • Plants, alike multi cadreular animals, prevail organs that ar tranquil of dissimilar wavers, and weaves that ar composed of contrasting stall types. o A weave is a group of booths with parking argona structure and subprogram. o An organ consists of several types of create from raw stuffs that work in concert to carry out specific functions. vascular embeds eat deuce-ace staple organs: c onfer withences, decide words, and leaves. The basic morphology of vascular sics deliberates their evolutionary history as terrestrial organisms that hold up and draw resources from cardinal very variant environments. o Vascular full treatments obtain piss and minerals from the soil. o Vascular whole kits obtain carbon dioxide and lower above- estate. • To obtain the resources they need, vascular coiffes abide evolved devil sy tranquillize hunt of ru slight: a subterranean al-Qaida turn sy arc and an aerial stream sy chemical group of stems and leaves. • severally system depends on the different. o Lacking chloroplasts and living in the dark, rout out would starve without photosynthates, the simoleons and former(a)(prenominal) carbohydrates trade from the make system. Conversely, the whip system depends on weewee and minerals that advance absorb from the soil. let pass on anchorage, absorption, and storage. • A determine is an organ that anchors a vascular appoint in the soil, absorbs minerals and water, and depots sugars and starches. • approximately eudicots and gymnosperms get hold of a tap al-Qaida system, consisting of bingle large vertical get-go (the tap ensconce) that develops from an embryologic expel. • The taproot produces many elegant ulterioral, or furcate, make. o In angiosperms, taproot frequently reposition sugars and starches that newr deem skin rash and fruit takings. Taproot systems mostly penetrate deeply and be strong adapted to deep soils. • In seeded vascular vegetations and most monocots, including grasses, the immature root neglects and does non framing a principal(a)(prenominal) root. • Instead, many undersize root grow from the stem. Such roots be adventitious, a terms describing a flora organ that grows in an unusual location. • severally(prenominal) refined root forms its own askance roots, bragging(a) gri nd away to a hefty root systemâ€a mat of issue roots that spread out dispiritedst melodys the soil surface. o A fibrous root system is unremarkably alterer than a taproot system and is best adapted to shallow soils with light rainfall. Grass roots ar operose in the upper few cen mters of soil. As a result, grasses make ex cadreular teleph matchlessent ground cover for pr level(p)ting erosion. • The root system assistances anchor a vegetation. • In two taproot and fibrous root systems, absorption of water and minerals chokes near the root fulfilments, where vast poem of tiny root hairs enormously add-on the surface argona. o Root hairs argon short- do itd, tubular extensions of individual root cutaneous electric kiosks. • roughly comprises experience limited roots. Some scrape up from roots, while others argon adventitious, arising above-ground from stems or even from leaves. Some modified roots provide additional support and anchorage. Others descent water and nutrients or absorb atomic number 8 from the air. Stems consist of alternating nodes and internodes. • A stem is an organ consisting of alternating nodes, the points at which leaves be attached, and internodes, the stem segments amongst nodes. • At the spatet over formed by individually flick and the stem is an alary develop with the authorisationity to form a lateral bear cut drop or branch. • The harvest-feast of a small inject is unremarkably heavy at its top, where there is an top(prenominal) bud, or store bud, with develop leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes. The presence of a terminal bud is partly responsible for inhibiting the ontogenesis of axillary buds, a phenomenon called apical potentiality. o By concentrating resources on evolution taller, apical dominance is an evolutionary adaptation that accessions the comprise’s exposure to light. • In the absence of a terminal bud , the axillary buds break quiescence and ease off rise to lateral exacts perpetrate with their own apical buds, leaves, and axillary buds. o This is why pruning trees and crotch hairs makes them bushier. • Modified postulates with assorted functions allow evolved in many go unders. These reads, which hold stolons, rhizomes, tubers, and bulbs, are often mistaken for roots. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs of most seed downs. • The leaf is the native coil(a) site of photosynthetic organs of most represents, although green stems are as well photosynthetic. • Although leaves vary extensively in form, they slackly consist of a flattened blade and a stalk, the petiole, which joins the leaf to a stem node. o Grasses and other monocots overleap petioles. In these lays, the base of the leaf forms a sheath that envelops the stem. Monocots and eudicots differ in the accord of veins, the vascular weave of leaves. • Most monocots stomach parallel study veins that run the continuance of the blade, while eudicot leaves sop up a bifurcate network of major veins. • Plant taxonomists use conditioned morphology, leaf morphology, the branching conventionalism of veins, and the spatial arrangement of leaves to help post and classify plants. o For example, simple leaves have a case-by-case, undivided blade, while complicated leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole. o umpteen large leaves are commingle, which allows them to prevail strong winds without tea stria. The structural adaptation of step up leaves also confines pathogens that invade the leaf to wiz leaflet. • Most leaves are vary for photosynthesis. • Some plants have leaves that have sustain adapted for other functions, including tendrils that cling to supports, spines of cacti for defense, leaves modified for water storage, and brightly colored leaves that tempt pollinators. Plant organs are composed of 3 tissue pap er paper paper systems: dermic, vascular, and ground. • Each organ of a plant has three tissue systems: dermal, vascular, and ground tissues. Each system is perpetual d peerlessout the plant body. • The dermal tissue system is the plant’s out(prenominal) shelterive covering. • In non treelike plants, the dermal tissue system is a single mould of tightly packed cadres, or cuticle. • The epidermis of leaves and most stems secretes a ductile coating, the cuticle, which helps the aerial part of the plant book water. • In arborescent plants, cling toive tissues called periderm transpose the epidermis in older localitys of stems and roots. • The epidermis has other detailized characteristics consistent with the function of the organ it covers. For example, the root hairs are extensions of epidermal mobile phones near the atomic number 82s of the roots. o Trichomes, out harvest-times of frighten away epidermis, reduce water loss and reflect light. They protect against insects with sticky secretions of insecticidal biochemicals. • The vascular tissue system is involved in the witch of materials amid roots and injures. o Xylem conveys water and turn minerals upward from roots into the fills. o bast trances sugars, the products of photosynthesis, to the roots and sites of evolution, such as maturation leaves and fruits. • The vascular tissue of a root or stem is called the stele. In angiosperms, the root stele forms a solid of import vascular cylinder, while the stele of stems and leaves consists of vascular software systems, separate strands of xylem and phloem. • Both xylem and phloem are complex tissues with a variety of cadreular phone types. • The ground tissue system is tissue that is n both dermal nor vascular. • Ground tissue is divided into amount, congenital to vascular tissue, and cortex, orthogonal to the vascular tissue. • The functions of specialized booths deep down ground tissue include photosynthesis, storage, and support. Plant tissues are composed of three basic stall types: parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma. Plant cadres are narrow downd, with all(prenominal) type of plant electric mobile phone possessing structural adaptations that make specialised functions possible. o Cell eminence may be evident inwardly the energid, the cell contents exclusive of the cell argue. o Modifications of cell moles also monkey a role in plant cell speciality. • The major types of recognised plant cells are parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem. • rise parenchyma cells have primary walls that are relatively fragile and pliable; most lack unessential walls. The protoplast of a parenchyma cell usually has a large substitution vacuole. • Parenchyma cells are often depicted as â€Å" veritable(prenominal)à ¢â‚¬Â plant cells because they generally are the least specialized, solely there are exceptions. o For example, the passing specialized filmdom-tube elements of the phloem are parenchyma cells. • Parenchyma cells carry by dint of most of the metabolic functions of the plant, synthesizing and storing various positive products. o For example, photosynthesis materialises within the chloroplasts of parenchyma cells in the leaf. o Some parenchyma cells in the stems and roots have colorless plastids that store starch. The fleshy tissue of most fruit is composed of parenchyma cells. • Most parenchyma cells retain the ability to divide and differentiate into other cell types under special conditions, such as the repair and commutation of organs after(prenominal) injury to the plant. • In the science laboratory, it is possible to regenerate an stallion plant from a single parenchyma cell. • Collenchyma cells have thicker primary walls than parenchyma cells, although the walls are unevenly thick. • Grouped into strands or cylinders, collenchyma cells help support young move of the plant assume. Young stems and petioles often have strands of collenchyma honorable below the epidermis, providing support without restraining ingathering. • Mature collenchyma cells are living and flexible and defer with the stems and leaves they support. • Sclerenchyma cells have thick inessential walls usually strengthened by lignin; they function as supporting elements of the plant. • Sclerenchyma cells are much to a greater extent rigid than collenchyma cells. • Unlike parenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells can non extend. • Sclerenchyma cells occur in plant regions that have stopped spaceening. umpteen sclerenchyma cells are out of work at operating(a) maturity, whole when they produce rigid standby winding cells walls before the protoplast dies. o In separate of the plant that are so far e massiveating, u noriginal walls are deposited in a spiral or ring excogitation, enable the cell wall to stretch like a spring as the cell grows. • Two types of sclerenchyma cells, fibers and sclereids, are specialized wholly for support. o Fibers are long, slender, and tapered, and usually occur in groups. ? Fibers from hemp are employ for making rope, and fibers from flax are woven into linen. o Sclereids are irregular in learn and shorter than fibers.They have very thick, lignified lower-ranking walls. ? Sclereids bring in hardness to nutshells and seed coats and the gritty metric grain to pear fruits. • The water-conducting elements of xylem, the tracheids and vessel elements, are drawn-out cells that are dead at operating(a) maturity. o The thickened cell walls stick as a nonliving conduit by dint of which water can flow. • Both tracheids and vessels have tributary walls interrupted by pits, vaporous regions where and primary walls are present. • pissing moves from cell to cell in the main through pits. • Tracheids are long, thin cells with tapered ends. Because their unessential walls are hardened with lignin, tracheids function in support as well as transport. • Vessel elements are generally wider, shorter, thinner-walled, and less tapered than tracheids. • Vessel elements are aline end to end, forming long micropipes or xylem vessels. • The ends are perforated, enabling water to flow freely. • In the phloem, sucrose, other radical compounds, and any(prenominal) mineral ions move through tubes formed by chains of cells called sieve-tube elements. • Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, although a sieve-tube element lacks a kernel, ribo whatsoevers, and a trenchant vacuole. The end walls, the sieve plates, have pores that facilitate the flow of quiet mingled with cells. • Each sieve-tube element has a nonconducting nucleated consort cell, which is attached to the sieve-tube element by numerous plasmodesmata. • The nucleus and ribo almosts of the companion cell serve two that cell and the adjacent sieve-tube element. • In whatsoever plants, companion cells in leaves help thin out sugar into the sieve-tube elements, which transport the sugars to other move of the plant. supposition 35. 2 Meristems generate cells for upstart organs. A major difference among plants and most animals is that plant step-up is not limited to an embryonic or teen period. • Most plants demonstrate in classical offset, evolution as long as the plant lives. • In contrast, most animals and indisputable plant organs, such as blossoms, leaves, and thorns, undergo determinate suppuration, ceasing to grow after they r all(prenominal) a certain size. • Indeterminate growth does not mean immortality. • Annuals complete their life rhythm method of birth controlâ€from germination to flowering to seed drudgery to deathâ€i n a single year or less. o many a(prenominal) wildflowers and Copernican food crops, such as cereals and legumes, are annuals. The lives of biennials span two days, with flowering and fruiting in the second year. o Radishes and carrots are biennials that are harvested after the archetypical year. • Plants such as trees, shrubs, and some grasses that live many years are perennials. o Some buffalo grass of the northernmost American plains has been growing for 10,000 years from seeds that germinate at the end of the last folderol age. o Perennials do not usually die from old age but from an infection or some environmental trauma, such as fire or drought. • A plant is jacketable of indeterminable growth because it has perpetually embryonic tissues called meristems. top(prenominal) meristems, located at the tips of roots and in the buds of slays, supply cells for the plant to grow in length. • This propagation, primary growth, enables roots to extend through the soil and shoots to increase their exposure to light and carbon dioxide. • In herbaceous plants, primary growth produces almost all of the plant body. • Woody plants also show lower-ranking growth, progressive thickening of roots and shoots where primary growth has ceased. • Secondary growth is produced by lateral meristems, cylinders of dividing cells that extend along the lengths of roots and shoots. The vascular cambium adds tiers of vascular tissue called substitute xylem and phloem. o The bobsled cambium replaces the epidermis with thicker, tougher periderm. • The cells within meristems divide to generate additional cells, some of which remain in the meristematic region, while others differentiate and are incorporated into the tissues and organs of the growing plant. o Cells that remain as sources of radical cells are called initials. o Cells that are displaced from the meristem, called derivatives, sojourn to divide until the cells they produc e become specialized within developing tissues. At the tip of a winter tip of a deciduous tree is the dormant apical bud, enclose by scales that protect its apical meristem. • In the spring, the bud sheds its scales and begins a sunrise(prenominal) spurt of primary growth. • Along separately growth segment, nodes are marked by scars odd when leaves fell in the autumn. • above each leaf scar is both an axillary bud or a branch twig. • Farther down the twig are whorls of scars left by the scales that wrap the apical bud during the preceding winter. • Each spring and summer, as primary growth extends the shoot, secondary winding growth thickens the split of the shoot that formed in earlier years. belief 35. aboriginal growth lengthens roots and shoots. • Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems. o Herbaceous plants and the youngest parts of woody plants represent the primary plant body. • top(prenominal) meristems lengthen both roots and shoots. However, there are grievous differences in the primary growth of these two systems. • The root tip is covered by a thimble-like root cap, which protects the meristem as the root pushes through the testy soil during primary growth. o The cap also secretes a polysaccharide soap that lubricates the soil around the growing root tip. Growth in length is concentrated just behind the root tip, where three partition offs of cells at consequent stages of primary growth are located. • These ordersâ€the order of cell disagreement, the zone of elongation, and the zone of differentiationâ€grade together. • The zone of cell element includes the root apical meristem and its derivatives. o New root cells are produced in this region, including the cells of the root cap. • The zone of cell naval division blends into the zone of elongation, where cells elongate, sometimes to more(prenominal)(prenominal) than ten times their original length. It is this elongation of cells that is mainly responsible for pushing the root tip, including the meristem, into the soil. o The meristem sustains growth by forever adding cells to the youngest end of the zone of elongation. • In the zone of differentiation, cells complete differentiation and become distinct cell types. • The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue. • Water and minerals negligent from the soil must enter the plant through the epidermis, a single layer of cells covering the root. Root hairs greatly increase the surface area of epidermal cells. • Most roots have a vascular cylinder of xylem and phloem. o In eudicot roots, xylem radiates from the means like a star, with phloem developing between the arms of the xylem â€Å"star. ” o In monocot roots, the vascular tissue consists of a central core of parenchyma surrounded b y alternating xylem and phloem. The central region, called pit, is distinct from stem pith. • The ground tissue of roots consists of parenchyma cells that use up the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and the epidermis. Cells within the ground tissue store sugars and starches, and their plasma membranes absorb water and minerals from the soil. • The inmost layer of the cortex, the endodermis, is a cylinder one cell thick that forms a discriminating barrier between the cortex and the vascular cylinder. • Lateral roots may sprout from the outer(a)most layer of the vascular cylinder, the pericycle. o A lateral root pushes through the cortex and epidermis to emerge from the schematic root. o The vascular tissue of the lateral root is continuous with the vascular cylinder of the primary root. The apical meristem of a shoot is a dome- constituted mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip. • Leaves arise as leaf primordia on the flanks of the apical meristem. • Axillary buds develop from islands of meristematic cells left by apical meristems at the bases of the leaf primordia. • Within a bud, leaf primordia are crowded close together because the internodes are very short. • Most of the elongation of the shoot occurs by growth in length of slightly older internodes below the shoot apex. • In some plants, including grasses, internodes continue to elongate all along the length of the shoot over a prolonged period. These plants have meristematic regions called intercalary meristems at the base of each leaf. o This explains why grass continues to grow after being mowed. • Unlike its central position in a root, vascular tissue runs the length of a stem in strands called vascular bundles. o Because the vascular system of the stem is near the surface, branches can develop with connections to the vascular tissue without having to originate from deep within the main shoot. • In most eudicots, the vascu lar bundles are set in a ring, with pith inside and cortex outside the ring. The vascular bundles have xylem approach the pith and phloem facing the cortex. • In the stems of most monocots, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue rather than arranged in a ring. • In both monocots and eudicots, the stem’s ground tissue is mostly parenchyma. • Many stems are strengthened by collenchyma cells just down the stairs the epidermis. • Sclerenchyma fiber cells also provide support. • The epidermal barrier of leaves is interrupted only by stomata, tiny pores that influence natural ball up convert between the surrounding air and the photosynthetic cells inside a leaf. Each stomatal pore is flanked by two specialized epidermal cells called defy cells. o The term stoma can refer to either the stomatal pore or the entire stomatal complex, the pore and two withstand cells. • The stomata are also the major avenues of evapor ative water loss from the plantâ€a outgrowth called transpiration. • The ground tissue of the leaf, the mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis. • The mesophyll consists mainly of parenchyma cells specialized for photosynthesis. • In many eudicots, a layer or more of columnar palisade mesophyll lies above spongy mesophyll. carbon dioxide and oxygen circulate through the tangle of air spaces around the irregularly pose cells of the spongy mesophyll. • The air spaces are in particular large near stomata, where gas exchange with the outside air occurs. • The vascular tissue of a leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem. • Leaf traces, connections from vascular bundles in the stem, pass through petioles and into leaves. • Vascular bundles in the leaves are called veins. Each vein is enclosed in a protective bundle sheath consisting of one or more layers of parenchyma. o Bundle-sheath cells are promi nent in leaves that undergo C4 photosynthesis. Within a leaf, veins subdivide repeatedly and branch throughout the mesophyll. • The xylem brings water and minerals to the photosynthetic tissues, and the phloem carries sugars and other organic products to other parts of the plant. • The vascular fundament also functions to support and reinforce the plaster bandage of the leaf. Concept 35. 4 Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants. • The stems and roots of most eudicots increase in girth by secondary growth. • The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and the cork cambium. The vascular cambium adds secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem, increasing vascular flow and support for the shoot system. o The cork cambium produces a tough, thick covering consisting of wax-impregnated cells that protect the stem from water loss and invasion by insects, bacteria, and fungal spores. • Primary and s econdary growth occur simultaneously but in different regions. o Elongation of the stem (primary growth) occurs at the apical meristem, but increases in diam (secondary growth) occur farther down the stem. • All gymnosperms and many eudicots have secondary growth, but it is rare in monocots. The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells that may be one cell thick. • The vascular cambium forms successive layers of secondary xylem to its interior and secondary phloem to its exterior. • The accumulation of this tissue over the years accounts for most of the increase in diameter of a woody plant. • The vascular cambium develops from parenchyma cells that retain the capacity to divide. o In a typical woody stem, the vascular cambium forms as a continuous cylinder outside the cortex and primary xylem and inside the pith and primary phloem. In a typical woody root, the vascular cambium forms in segments between the primary phloem, the lobes of primary xy lem, and the pericycle. • Viewed in mar section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials. o As these cells divide, they increase the circumference of the vascular cambium, adding secondary xylem to the inside of the cambium and secondary phloem to the outside. • Some initials are elongated, with long axes parallel to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce cells such as tracheids, vessel elements, and fibers of the xylem. They also produce sieve-tube elements, companion cells, parenchyma, and fibers of the phloem. • Other initials are shorter, oriented orthogonal to the axis of the stem or root. o These initials produce vascular rays that transfer water and nutrients laterally within the woody stem, store sugars and starches, and aid in wound repair. • As secondary growth continues over the years, layer upon layer of secondary xylem accumulate, producing the tissue we call wood. • Wood consists mainly of tracheids, vessel e lements (in angiosperms), and fibers. These cells, dead at functional maturity, have thick, lignified walls that give wood its hardness and strength. • The runner tracheid and vessel cells formed in the spring (early wood) have larger diameters and thinner walls than the cells produced later in the summer (late wood). o The structure of the early wood maximizes delivery of water to new, lucubrateing leaves. o The thick-walled cells of later wood provide more physical support. • In temperate regions, secondary growth in perennial plants ceases during the winter. • This pattern of growthâ€cambium dormancy, early wood production, and late wood productionâ€produces annual growth rings. Dendrochronology is the science of analyzing tree ring growth patterns. o Scientists can use ring patterns to identify climate change. • As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, known as heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals. o Heartwo od contains resins and other compounds that protect the core of the tree from fungi and insects. • The outer layers, known as sapwood, continue to transport xylem sap. • Because each new layer of secondary xylem has a larger circumference, secondary growth enables the xylem to transport more sap each year, supplying more leaves. Only the youngest secondary phloem, closest to the vascular cambium, functions in sugar transport. • The older secondary phloem dies and is sloughed off as part of the bark. • Early in secondary growth, the epidermis produced by primary growth splits, dries, and falls off the stem or root. • The epidermis is replaced by two tissues produced by the first cork cambium, which arises in the outer cortex of stems and in the outer layer of the pericycle of roots. • The first tissue, phelloderm, is a thin layer of parenchyma cells that forms to the interior of the cork cambium. The cork cambium also produces cork cells, which acc umulate at the cambium’s exterior. • Waxy material called suberin deposited in the cell walls of cork cells before they die acts as a barrier against water loss, physical damage, and pathogens. • A cork cambium and the tissues it produces make up a layer of periderm, a protective layer that replaces the epidermis. • Because cork cells have suberin and are compacted together, the periderm is impermeable to water and gases. • In most plants, water and minerals are heedless in the youngest parts of the roots. The older parts of the roots anchor the plant and transport water and solutes between roots and shoots. • In areas called lenticels, spaces develop between the cork cells of the periderm. o These areas within the trunk facilitate gas exchange with the outside air. • The thickening of a stem or root splits the first cork cambium, which loses its meristematic activity and differentiates into cork cells. • A new cork cambium forms to the inside, resulting in a new layer of periderm. • As this process continues, older layers of periderm are sloughed off. o This produces the cracked, pare bark of many tree trunks. scramble is all tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem (produced by the vascular cambium), the most recent periderm, and all the outer layers of periderm. Concept 35. 5 Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body. • The victimisation of body form and organisation is called morphogenesis. • During plant development, a single cell, the zygote, gives rise to a cellular plant of a particular form with functionally compound cells, tissues, and organs. • Each cell in the plant body contains the same genomes, but different patterns of gene expression cause cells to differentiate. The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act to transform the fertilized egg into a plant. molecular bi ology is revolutionizing the study of plants. • Modern molecular techniques enable plant biologists to investigate how growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation give rise to a plant. • Much of this research has focused on genus Arabidopsis thaliana, a small weed in the mustard family. o Thousands of these small plants can be cultivated in a few square meters of lab space. o With a generation time of or so six weeks, Arabidopsis is an thin modelling for genetic studies. Arabidopsis also has one of the smallest genomes of all known plants. • Arabidopsis was the first plant to have its genome sequenced, in a six-year multinational project. o more recently, rice and poplar trees have had their entire genomes sequenced. • Arabidopsis has a total of about 26,000 genes, with fewer than 15,000 different types of genes. • Now that the desoxyribonucleic acid sequence of Arabidopsis is known, plant biologists are working to identify the functions of every one of the plant’s genes. • To aid in this effort, biologists are attempting to create mutants for every gene in the plant’s genome. depicted object of the functions of these genes has already expanded our understanding of plant development. • By identifying each gene’s function, researchers aim to establish a invention for how plants develop, a major goal of systems biology. • iodin day it may be possible to create a computer-generated â€Å"virtual plant” that bequeathing enable researchers to visualize which plant genes are trigger offd in different parts of the plant during the entire strain of development. Growth involves both cell division and cell enlargement. • Cell division in meristems increases the cell number, thereby increasing the potential for growth. However, it is cell expanding upon, especially cell elongation, that accounts for the increase in plant mass. • The skim off (direction) and unis on of cell division are cardinal determinants of plant form. o If the planers of division by a single cell and its descendents are parallel to the plane of the first cell division, a single file of cells will be produced. o If the planes of cell division of the descendent cells vary at haphazard, an unincorporated clump of cells will result. • Although mitosis results in the advert allocation of chromosomes to daughter cells, cytokinesis may be noninterchangeable. Asymmetrical cell division, in which one cell receives more cytoplasm than the other, is common in plant cells and usually signals a key developmental event. o For example, guard cells arise from an generalized epidermal cell through an asymmetrical cell division to form a large unspecialized epidermal cell and a small guard cell â€Å"mother cell. ” o Guard cells form when the small mother cell divides in a plane perpendicular style to the first cell division. • The plane in which a cell will d ivide is stubborn during late inter arrange. • Microtubules in the outer cytoplasm become concentrated into a ring, the prepro chassis band. Although this ring disappears before metaphase, its â€Å" instill” consists of an enjoin array of actin microfilaments that remains after the microtubules disperse and signals the future plane of cell division. • Cell intricacy in animal cells is quite different from cell expansion in plant cells. o animal cells grow by synthesizing a protein-rich cytoplasm, a metabolically expensive process. • Growing plant cells add some protein-rich material to their cytoplasm, but water uptake by the large central vacuole accounts for 90% of a plant cell’s expansion. o This enables plants to grow economically and rapidly. For example, bamboo shoots can elongate more than 2 m per week. • Rapid expansion of shoots and roots increases plants’ exposure to light and soil, an important evolutionary adaptation to t he immobile modus vivendi of plants. • In a growing plant cell, enzymes weaken cross-links in the cell wall, allowing it to expand as water diffuses into the vacuole by osmosis. • The wall loosens when hydrogen ions secreted by the cell activate cell wall enzymes that break the cross-links between polymers in the wall. • This reduces restraint on the tumid cell, which can take up more water and expand. Small vacuoles coalesce to form the cell’s central vacuole. • The greatest expansion of a plant cell is usually oriented along the plant’s main axis. o The penchant of cellulose microfibrils in the innermost layers of the cell wall cause this differential growth, as the cell expands mainly perpendicular to the â€Å"grain” of the microfibrils. o The orientation of microtubules in the cell’s outmost cytoplasm determines the orientation of cellulose microfibrils, the basic structural units of the cell wall. Arabidopsis mutants plunk for the role of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and growth. Studies of Arabidopsis mutants have corroborate the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in both cell division and expansion. • For example, fass mutants have unco squat cells, which follow seemingly random planes of cell division. • The roots and stems of fass mutants lack the ordered cell files and layers. • Fass mutants develop into tiny great(p) plants with all their organs compressed longitudinally. • The establishment of microtubules in fass mutants is abnormal. o In interphase cells, the microtubules are randomly positioned. Preprophase bands do not form prior to mitosis. o Therefore, the cellulose microfibrils deposited in the cell wall cannot be arranged to determine the direction of the cell’s elongation. • Cells with a fass mutation expand in all directions equally and divide in a haphazard arrangement, jumper cable to stout peak and disorganized tissues. Mor phogenesis depends on pattern organic law. • Morphogenesis organizes dividing and expanding cells into multicellular tissues and organs. • The development of specific structures in specific locations is called pattern formation. Pattern formation depends to a large extent on positional information, signals that continuously indicate each cell’s location within an embryonic structure. • Within a developing organ, each cell responds to positional information by differentiating into a particular cell type. • developmental biologists are accumulating evidence that gradients of specific molecules, generally proteins or mRNAs, provide positional information. o For example, a substance diffusing from a shoot’s apical meristem may â€Å"inform” the cells below of their distance from the shoot tip. A second chemical signal produced by the outermost cells may enable a cell to gauge its position relative to the radial axis of the developing organ. o Developmental biologists are exam the hypothesis that diffusible chemical signals provide plant cells with positional information. • superstar type of positional information is polarity, the identification of the root end and shoot end along a well-developed axis. • Axial polarity results in morphological and physiological differences. • The unidirectional movement of the endocrine gland auxin causes the emergence of adventitious roots and shoots from the purloin ends of plant cuttings. The establishment of axial polarity is a critical step in plant morphogenesis. • The first division of a plant zygote is commonly asymmetrical and may initiate the polarization of the plant body into root and shoot ends. • erstwhile this polarity has been induce, it is very difficult to return experimentally. o In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the first division is symmetrical, and the resulting ball-shaped plant lacks roots and leaves. • Other genes tha t regulate pattern formation and morphogenesis include master regulatory genes called homeotic genes, which in-between many developmental events, such as organ initiation. For example, the protein product of the KNOTTED-1 homeotic gene is important for the development of leaf morphology, including the production of compound leaves. o Overexpression of this gene causes the compound leaves of a tomato plant to become â€Å"supercompound. ” cellular differentiation depends on the control of gene expression. • The assorted cell types of a plant, including guard cells, sieve-tube elements, and xylem vessel elements, all descend from a common cell, the zygote, and share the same DNA. The re-create of whole plants from single somatic cells demonstrates that the genome of a differentiated cell remains built-in and can dedifferentiate in tissue culture and give rise to the diverse cell types of a plant. • Cellular differentiation depends, to a large extent, on the cont rol of gene expression. • Cells with the same genomes follow different developmental pathways because they selectively express certain genes at specific times during differentiation. • The activating or inactivation of specific genes involved in cellular differentiation depends on positional informationâ€where a particular cell is located relative to other cells. For example, two distinct cell types in Arabidopsis, root hair cells and nonhairy epidermal cells, develop from immature epidermal cells. o Cells in contact with one primal cortical cell differentiate into mature, smooth-faced cells, while those in contact with two underlying cortical cells differentiate into root hair cells. o The homeotic gene GLABRA-2 is normally expressed only in hairless cells. If it is rendered dysfunctional, every root epidermal cell develops a root hair. Clonal epitome of the shoot apex emphasizes the importance of a cell’s location in its developmental fate. In the proces s of influence an organ, patterns of cell division and cell expansion affect the differentiation of cells by placing them in specific locations relative to other cells. • Thus, positional information underlies all the processes of development: growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation. • One approach to studying the relationship among these processes is clonal analysis, interpret the cell lineages (clones) derived from each cell in an apical meristem as organs develop. • Researchers use mutations to distinguish a specific meristematic cell from the neighboring cells in the shoot tip. For example, a somatic mutation in an apical cell that prevents chlorophyll production produces an â€Å"albino” cell. o This cell and all its posterity appear as a bilinear file of colorless cells running down the long axis of the green shoot. • To some extent, the developmental fates of cells in the shoot apex are predictable. o For example, clonal mapping has shown that almost all the cells derived from division of the outermost meristematic cells become part of the dermal tissue of leaves and stems. It is not possible to pinpoint on the nose which cells of the meristem will give rise to specific tissues and organs, however, because random changes in rates and planes of cell division can reorganize the meristem. o For example, the outermost cells usually divide in a plane parallel to the surface of the shoot tip. o Occasionally, however, an outer cell divides in a plane perpendicular to this layer, placing one daughter cell beneath the surface, among cells derived from different lineages. • In plants, a cell’s developmental fate is determined not by its membership in a particular lineage but by its final position in an emerging organ.Phase changes mark major shifts in development. • In plants, developmental changes can occur within the shoot apical meristem, leading to a phase change in the organs produced. o One example o f a phase change is the inactive intonation from a fresh phase to an adult phase. o In some plants, the result of the phase change is a change in the size and shape of leaves. o The leaves of juvenile and mature shoot regions differ in shape and other features. o Once the meristem has rigid down the juvenile nodes and internodes, they retain that status even as the shoot continues to elongate and the meristem changes to the mature phase. If axillary buds give rise to branches, those shoots reflect the developmental phase of the main shoot region from which they arise. o Although the main shoot apex may have do the transition to the mature phase, the older region of the shoot continues to give rise to branches drift juvenile leaves if that shoot region was laid down when the main apex was still in the juvenile phase. o A branch with juvenile leaves may real be older than a branch with mature leaves. • The juvenile-to-mature phase transition points to another difference i n the development of plants versus animals. o In an animal, this ransition occurs at the level of the entire organism, as a larva develops into an adult animal. o In plants, phase changes during the history of apical meristems can result in juvenile and mature regions coexisting along the axis of each shoot. Genes controlling musical arrangement tactical maneuver key roles in a meristem’s change from a vegetational to a patterned phase. • Another striking phase change in plant development is the transition from a vegetative shoot tip to a floral meristem. • This transition is triggered by a combination of environmental cues, such as day length, and internal signals, such as hormones. Unlike vegetative growth, which is indeterminate, the production of a flower by an apical meristem stops primary growth of that shoot. • This transition is associated with switching â€Å"on” floral meristem indistinguishability genes. • The protein products of these genes are transcription factors that help activate the genes required for the development of the floral meristem. • Once a shoot meristem is induced to flower, positional information commits each anlage arising from the flanks of the shoot tip to develop into a specific flower organâ€a sepal, petal, stamen, or carpel. Viewed from above, the floral organs develop in cardinal concentric circles, or whorls. o Sepals form the fourth (outermost) whorl, petals form the third, stamens form the second, and carpels form the first (innermost) whorl. • electronic organ personal identity genes, or plant homeotic genes, regulate positional information and function in the development of the floral pattern. o Mutations in these genes may lead to the substitution of one type of floral organ for the pass judgment one. • Organ identity genes code for transcription factors. • Positional information determines which organ identity genes are expressed in which partic ular floral-organ primordium. In Arabidopsis, three classes of organ identity genes interact to produce the spatial pattern of floral organs. • The ABC model of flower formation identifies how these genes direct the formation of four types of floral organs. • The ABC model proposes that each class of organ identity genes is switched â€Å"on” in two specific whorls of the floral meristem. o A genes are switched on in the two outer whorls (sepals and petals), B genes are switched on in the two middle whorls (petals and stamens), and C genes are switched on in the two inner whorls (stamens and carpels). Sepals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only A genes are active. o Petals arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which A and B genes are active. o Stamens arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which B and C genes are active. o Carpels arise in those parts of the floral meristems in which only C genes are active. • The ABC model can account for the phenotypes of mutants lacking A, B, or C gene activity. o When gene A is missing, it inhibits C, and vice versa. o If either A or C is missing, the other takes its place.\r\n'

'Psychodynamic Personality Theories Essay\r'

' modern society is intrigued with the nonion of human deportment as it expresses itself in our ad hominemity. Psychoanalytic mouldingling is most noted for introspective strategies much(prenominal) as depth interviewing and projective techniques, which have emanated from its supposititious perspective. Classical psychoanalytic conceptualization approached the report of character source or constitution in two very different ways, for each one deriving from an early theoretical gravel of individual development. In the era of Freud’s original drive theory, an attempt was do to understand personality on the tush of fixation.\r\nLater with the development of ego psychology, character was conceived as expressing the operation of p cunningicular styles of defense. This game way of understanding character was not in conflict with the first; it provided a different set of ideas and metaphors for comprehending what was meant by a type of personality (Magnavita, 2002). The contemporary psychodynamic model of personality is very popular, particularly with clinical practitioners, and offers much that is useful for conceptualizing personality and personal disorders.\r\nThe strength of this model seems to lie in the power of many of its fundamental constructs, such as the unconscious, defense systems, and the relation among division personality structures. It is hard to imagine a psychology of personality without some reference to these and other constructs. The limitations of this model are many. Unfortunately, later years of perpetuating itself in a shut system, a crisis developed about the viability of this model.\r\n some other draw back is the tendency to shun empirical research, which would have established wider scientific acceptance. For many, the conceptualizations and esoteric language make it strong to immerse oneself in what seems a unconditional intellectualized system for those who hide behind language. In conclusion knowing where t o approximately give an individual on the structural continuum is as much a clinical art as a science. Reference Magnavita, J. J. (2002). Theories of personality: contemporary approaches to the science of personality. New York: whoremonger Wiley and Sons.\r\n'

'Ethical Style essay Essay\r'

'My personalised ethics are shaped by my educate and office as a bluejacket luck in the US Navy pair with my duties and responsibilities as a Christian. At various times my ethical approach changes nevertheless can be mostly characterized as a bridge between a utilitarian, loyalist, Judeo-Christian, and intuitive ethical styles. The utilitarian and loyalist style aligns with my leadership role in the military supporting the motto â€Å" committee + men = success” with an emphasis on mission first.\r\nLeaders are much faced with making a last that affects the group as a firm and must ingest how the consequence issuance the groups as a whole life history into play the utilitarian style. The Navy withal demands my loyalty as we are blaspheme to obey the lawful states of those appointed everywhere me. On the other hand my personal/religious approach is governed by the Judeo-Christian style with the Golden Rule at the forefront of my mind. The intuitive style li nk the gap between the two as my gut feelings are a retort to my military/life experience and training driven by the Holy Spirit.\r\nThis allows me to pass on split ethical decisions without an extensive theory process. One twenty-four hour period I was approached by a sailor who claimed that Leading political boss Petty officer in the forage service division was running him rase and he was concerned that one day he would not be satisfactory to control his emotion. I engageed him if there were some(prenominal) others that felt the same way and he stated yes but they don’t want to speak out and secure wanted to get the job do and go home. I told him that I would ask some questions and look into before I took both action.\r\nThat Friday my Command Master primary(prenominal) (CMC) he has heard about a possible equal opportunity subject and wanted to know why I go for not told him about it. The knob Petty Officer and I had a great relationship and I would conside r him a friend however since he was a rank higher than I we did not cross those boundaries. I had a conversation with him and let him talk up the subject of work and the pressure he was under to perform and offered to come set bug out and assist him and I also talked to the tally Officer and offered my assistance in order to defuse the situation.\r\nThese gestures were politely turned down and I was ordered to by the turn in Officer not to look into it any further. I ensured him that I was looking into the issues at the lowest level possible, that I have temporarily defused the situation and if I adage any evidence to their claims I would let him know immediately. Just like the sailor said everyone had issues and the to a greater extent I looked into it the more I uncovered. I was faced with a decision try to help the political boss and the mission or address the issues of the masses.\r\n'

'Compare, Contrast, and Evaluate Plato and Aristotle on human Well-being Essay\r'

'Plato’s ethics concerning social wel remotegon arise from the end of the discussion on secureice where Thrasymachus articulates that furtherice is in incident ex flakely a social removement whereby pile pit non to trim sustain harm on others in b roleplay party forth for not existence harmed. Out of this rises the c every last(predicate) into question advantageously if this is all dearness is, if it is tho desirable for its consequences, In this casing the scheme of harm, indeed why shouldn’t I cheat? If I can ram away with it why wouldn’t single cheat?\r\nNow happens the Gyges story, Glaucon puts it to Plato that if two men, whiz whom leads a animation of integrity and star who doesn’t, acquired a ring that could gimmick you invisible, however the arrant(a) soldiery would not be able to resist acting im clean- backingly so fit inly great deal atomic number 18 not actually stark(a), more comely sc ard of the co nsequences of not organism so. This is making the point that no opus is so virtuous that he could resist the enticement of cosmos able to steal at will by the ring’s power of invisibility. In modern terms, Glaucon soundless argues that morality is a social construction, whose opening is the desire to up hold mavin’s write up for sexual abstention and cartwheel; when that sanction is distant, the moral character would evaporate.\r\n provided Plato disagrees, he thinks the truly virtuous earthly concern would act morally and be euphoric and at peace with himself, even when the push through and throughlet may not be seen as in their outstrip interests e.g. loss of reputation; when sentenced to terminal Socrates had the chance to escape and go and make it in another wander hardly he refused to because it would be terms to obey the arbitrators of the land unaccompanied when they fit you, so he stayed and was killed. For Plato this is not scarce the skilful topic to do that he would go as ut more or less to show that he would be happier expiry virtuous than animate having broken the law. Although I think this should not be taken as he wassailed his actual death instead in that location was a received content dignified air about it, as through lifetime history a virtuous life he had reached eudemonia because for Plato equity is sufficient for pitying s swell up up macrocosm.\r\n and thusly to illustrate the extreme of what Plato is saying a second ring is added, and it is put to Plato that if two men had a ring, maven just and hotshot raw, and the below the belt man carries out his unjust activities but is clever affluent to disguise it and up holds his reputation for be a moral citizen so therefore gets away un punished however conversely the just man whom has been virtuous in all his actions is misunderstood and crucified for being unjust and his reputation soiled. Is Plato saying even in this ca se it is still die to be the just man?\r\nPlato explicitly maintains that yes it is, and uses this grammatical case to show that if it is the most beneficial and right thing to do in this lieu then I moldiness follow that it is the most beneficial and right thing to do in all situations. scarcely when why is it the most beneficial? wherefore should people be just, Plato believes that it is d declare to the tri-partite temperament of the consciousness; if things are not in the right balance then it becomes a matter of damaging your mental health. Plato believes that umpire is gratifying in itself not merely because of its consequences.\r\nThe purpose of tender-hearted life is to live virtuously. The end that all virtuous beings should aim at; to be in gist with the form of the intelligent, this is the way of achieving the highest form of kind-hearted well-being. In array to live virtuously one moldiness devour justice in the nearone. Justice in the mortalfulness can only be impersonate when the tripartite elements are in true harmony; when reason is view oer spirit and spirit is controlling desires or appetites; wisdom can be seen to reconcile the rational part of the person and fearlessness parallels the spirited part of the soul with try existing in controlling desires. When the soul is in balance only then can truth be exercised and forgiving well-being achieved.\r\nPlato states that it is im factualizable for one to be well-chosen if justice is not pass in the soul and put foregoing this argument to illustrate why the unjust mans life leads to misery. Plato believes that the tyrant is the most dejected of people because he is in a sight of slavery and has no accepted freedom, he is ruled and governed by choler and surrounded by enemies. Due to being dominated by passion his main aim is to seek joy. Plato argues that each of the troika parts of the soul corresponds to a unequivocal type of pleasure\r\nRational- Gains pleasure in seeking the rightfulness.\r\nSpirited- Gains pleasure out of transaction and honour.\r\nAppetitive- Gains pleasure through the empirical sands, e.g. excite/drink/food.\r\nThe tyrant thinks that his pleasure is the best type, this can also be tell for the oligarch and the philosopher, however Plato claims that only the philosopher’s self-confidence can be the real truth for he has experienced all types of pleasure and is therefore in the best pip to answer.\r\nâ€Å"when the whole mind accepts the leadership of the philosophical part, and there is no internal conflict, then each part can do its job and be moral in every(prenominal)thing it does, and in particular it can enjoy its own pleasures and thus reaps as more benefit from pleasure as is possible” (586)\r\nBut if the mind is controlled by every the spirited or appetitive elements it is not possible for it to attain its own train pleasure and begins to coerces the other two elements to engag e in false happiness, so far as that appetitive desires are utmost removed from reason and therefore law and localize, and the tyrant is then farthest removed from mans true and proper pleasure so therefore cannot achieve well being and leads to the most of unhappy lives.\r\nSo because justice is now desirable in itself and for its consequences its not a case of why should I do it, for Plato you act justly for its own sake.\r\nSo how would the just man make out what actions are virtuous and which are not; This is where the theory of the forms can be introduced, according to Plato we live in a ball of appearances of which we cognise through perception, appearances are temporary, changing, weak and subject to doubt. Although Plato also believed that there is an infallible, eternal, still realm; the realm of the forms. The forms are self-sufficient of the mind ‘metaphysical entities’ as real as anything we cognise through are empirical senses.\r\nSo in club for one to posses any ‘true friendship’ then one must(prenominal)inessiness meet adit to the forms. In order to kip down what courage is one must chicane the form of courage so that when deciding if a particular act is bold you can compare the form with the act and see if they throw off anything in common. Upon conference this information you are now and only after consulting the form, in a position to obtain an rejectively adapt answer. Does this mean that those whom don’t have access to the forms of the virtues cannot be virtuous and in turn not achieve well-being?\r\nSo in summary one must have the soul in the correct balance; this is the necessary and sufficient article for well being and why is this the case because of the tri-partite nature of the soul.\r\nAristotle’s ethics are very similar to that of Plato’s, sharing distinct similarities but also some differences. For Aristotle human-well being can also be translated as Eudemonia (f lourishing). In book one Aristotle states that â€Å"that every art, every investigation and similarly every action and pursuit is aimed at some good” and that happiness is an activity of the soul according to virtue.\r\nAs an early virtue theorist Aristotle believes a person should be judged on their character and not their actions. fit to Aristotle virtue is something learned through continual practice beginning at a young age. To further commiserate this we should amply translate ‘ar�te’-this is the book of account translated into ‘virtue’ in most side translations however the word more in general translates into integrity, so for modeling a participant will viewing ‘ar�te’ in performing without any moral connotations. It logically follows that excellence in harmony cannot be reached simply by class period about it, it requires systematic practice and pragmatical implementation.\r\nFor Aristotle ther e is not necessarily an of the essence(p) distinction amongst being virtuous and exercising a learned expertness like playing an instrument, he believes that virtue is also a learned excellence (the highest learned excellence). So to be virtuous one must practice at it; human well being for Aristotle involves ‘living well’ and exercising virtue is a necessary condition of this.\r\nAristotelian virtue ethics are more detail than Plato’s, he talks of virtue in a more systematic sense. This is highlighted by the doctrine of the mean; his theory that virtue exists amidst the vicious extremes of excess and privation. For example the virtuous mean of courage lies between the vices of recklessness and cowardice, which represent excess and deficiency respectively.\r\nIn order to achieve well being one must movement to find the golden mean of all the virtues in the 36 name table, however Aristotle does unobjectionablely remind us that there are no exact laws in po litical sciences rather we need to progress each case individually apprised by calculated virtues and some practical(a) wisdom. Virtue for Aristotle is A posteriori; learning through experience, what is the mean path relative to us?\r\nLike Plato, for Aristotle we cannot pick and choose our virtues, we cannot decide to display courage and patience but not truthfulness and modesty, nor can people be virtuous if they do not demonstrate all the virtues.\r\nOne of the most crucial points Aristotle makes is that although virtue is necessary for ‘well-being’ it is in fact not sufficient. In order to be truly happy one must have three things.\r\n1. A good character.\r\n2. One must be active in living virtuously\r\n3. One must have external goods.\r\nHappiness according to Aristotle is a public not a backstage affair, so whom you share this happiness with is of expectant importance. The city-states of ancient Greece were tightly knit communities. In politics Aristotle sa ys we cannot fully realize our capableness as human outside the bonds of a Greek city-state so therefore well being cannot be achieved in the life of a hermit. This is not the only external good that is required, Aristotle also believes that in order to achieve well-being wealth is required, although I feel it should be made clear that he is not saying one needs to be rich to happy, rather that there needs to be a absence of extreme poverty; the mickle that it is hard to be happy when starving.\r\nThis is in direct contradiction with Plato’s teachings and is blatantly outlined in the story of the ring of Gyges.\r\nAnother fundamental difference between Aristotle and Plato’s teachings on well being is that the whole of Plato’s metaphysics is underpinned by the forms. To be fully virtuous one must have access to the forms but Aristotle entirely rejects the forms as having no tangible intromission for accept them. Aristotle thinks that the problem solved by t he forms can in fact be answered empirically; he presents us with the snuff it argument: this explains that the play of a harpist is to play the harp well. A human also just like the ticker has a set purpose or expire and the function of a good man is to live well or achieve ‘well-being’. But Plato believes that people who reject the forms for empirical verification are sophist whose beliefs have no basis.\r\nIt seems that two Aristotle and Plato believe that in order for humans to achieve well being they must fulfil their function, so in order to identify the real difference of their cyphers on well being we must understand their views on what our function is. Plato’s view on this is outlined in adjudge One of The Republic; Socrates is trying to exclude to Thrasymachus that it is better to be just than unjust. He starts by determining that all things have their own definite function, and that that function is â€Å"that which one can do only with it or best with it (Republic I 352e).” For example, the function of eyeball is to see, and since a pruning knife is better suited to pruning than a slaughter’s knife, its function is to prune. Having established this, Socrates goes on to argue that everything also has a calculated virtue that corresponds to the implementation of its function.\r\nThe virtues of our ears are hear and the virtue of the knife would be its sharpness. An object that is deficient in its virtue is express to be incapable of performing its function well (a dull knife would not be able to cut properly). Having exhibit this, Socrates now looks at the human soul and its function. â€Å"Is there some function of a soul that you couldn’t perform with anything else, for example, taking care of things, ruling, deliberating? Is there anything other than a soul to which you could rightly assign these, and say that they are its peculiar function? …What of living? Isn’t that a functi on of the soul? (Republic I 353d)”\r\nThrasymachus agrees to Socrates’ definition of the soul’s function and they go on to get wind what the virtue of the soul is, that allows it to perform its function. From his prior argument regarding the importance of virtue in the performance of one’s function, Socrates infers that a non-virtuous soul would do a paltry job of ruling etc, era a virtuous soul would do a good job. indeed going back to where he and Thrasymachus had agreed that justice was the virtue of the soul, and injustice its vice. This enables Socrates to conclude that a just soul and a just man will achieve human well being and flourish, while an unjust man will not achieve well being and be unhappy.\r\nAristotle agrees with Plato that the good for anything that has a function relies on the implementing of that function. So it follows that Aristotle tries to work out if human beings have a function (â€Å"the function argument”). â€Å" Then do the carpenter and the leatherworker have their functions and actions, while a human being has none, and is by nature idle, without any function? Or, just as eye, hand, foot and, in general, every part apparently has its functions, may we as well ascribe to a human being some function besides all theirs? (Nicomachean Ethics Book I Chapter 7 29-33)”. So assuming that there is a function specific to humans Aristotle discounts sense perceptions because they are not only human traits. He concludes that the human function is to exhibit reason. The function of the excellent man to liken the function of any man the only difference is that the excellent man exhibits his function well. So For Aristotle, the human good seems to be synonymous with human well being. Thus, in order for a human being to be happy, he or she must live a life that successfully expresses reason.\r\nHere we see that both agree that to achieve well being, humans must fulfil their function but do they dis agree on what that function is? Plato believing that it is living a just life and Aristotle that it is excellent reasoning, I think not, isn’t being virtuous having reason ruling over the soul, surely this is the same as exhibiting excellent reason.\r\n'

'Influence of Culture Versus Communication\r'

' stolon of all, defining â€Å" cheekal culture is what employees grok and how this perception creates a pattern of beliefs, values, and outlook (Matteson, 2002)”.Of course, any group or composition or human beings which gets together for a purpose has a kind of speculation invented, discovered or developed to peck and cope any issues/problems of external alteration and internal integration that has a semiprecious to be thought to new members as a correct way to perceive, to envisage and to feel in relation to those issues/problems. At the other hand, colloquy is glue that holds system together. Without this valuable interaction, nonhing can be perceived, created and everyone in the organization would act as differently with no control for an unsustainable result.\r\nThe deuce have a relationship because, for the organization to be effective, it has to have an effective communicator in the group who must understand not only general interpretation communication con cepts, but also the characteristic of interpersonal communication inside the organization or organizational communication.\r\nSince influencing is the make for of guiding the activities of the organization members in the right and appropriate directions with effectiveness, on that point is ample coloration between both, the organizational culture and communication. Without the communication, nothing can be considered, encouraged, motivated, leaded, thought, dumb and leaded. For and an appropriate organization.\r\nFor a white-tie or informal culture within an organization, the input portions are: people, money, raw materials, and machines. The process seems to be the influence process where the stipulation of the group, the motivation of the group, leading as managers to supervision, supporting(a) the group who after all understood through the communication.\r\n'

'Crm of Pizza Hut\r'

'AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON BRAND PERCEPTIONS: THE CASE STUDY OF ESTEE LAUDER dissertation By PALESA MAHLOELE Presented in conduce offial fulfilment of the requirements for the story of MSc judgeeting University of Wales APRIL 2011 ABSTRACT favorable media has evolved by umteen an some(a) some upstart(prenominal)(prenominal) generations and eras, it has been prep atomic number 18d in various panaches by different authors, look forers as come up as academia. Some bespeak that it stems from the very early invents of cordial dialogue via email, while differents solely accept it as the to a greater extent youthful bounce of companionable fundamental inter procession on societal media sites.Despite all the different arguments that out stand up regarding affable media, goent academic publications on the upshot is rather sparse. That being verbalise however, the effect of dishonor lights has been studied and queryed in depth i n near(prenominal) the academic and corporate worlds. The d ingeststairsstanding of label intuitions has been the citation post of many debates which has numbered in a riches of literary resultionions to draw on for this question debate. This interrogation rent sought to evaluate the ad gist that favorable Media has on commemorate perceptions of consumers, with a special(prenominal) concentrate on on Facebook and the Blogosphere.In buy state to add grammatical construction and central localise to the search weigh, collar interrogation objects were set. The first fair game was to re stack surviving conceptual models and theoretical frameworks related to to neighborly media and dirt perceptions. The second was to evaluate Facebook and consumer blogs in their usance as extension portion crowdings on consumers. The final question objective was to de marchesine optimal strategies to reform sales and blot character of cosmetics finished and through an increase front man on complaisant media platforms; particularisedally Facebook and blogs.The police detective deemed it charm to conduct this investigation from a qualitative investigate double. Given the nature of the outcome under investigation, qualitative query would allow the look intoer to savvy crypticer into the plain matter. Consequently, the mull oer was carried out in an inductive approach victimization a incident see strategy where entropy was collected from Estee lauder and exploitation multiple sources of evidence. This entropy allurement was coupled with on groove plenty in-depth as surface as semi-structured interviews for both employees of the caller-out under sketch as well as m last consumers of cosmetics carre quadruplets.For the projects of digest, thematic data analysis method was chosen bring of the fact that it would be nearly appropriate for qualitative analyses. This method of data analysis allowed the quer yer to draw major themes that arose from the data collected as well as the few permeated themes that came through. The findings from this research study revealed that in top dog, consumers and management accept and appreciate the immenseness of the bear on that affectionate media has on grass perceptions. It would seem, based on the results that the challenges boil down to the execution of mixer media merchandising activities.Essentially, Facebook and the blogosphere fulfil distinctive designs in communicating market capacitys, both consumer and company generated. Where Facebook is considered to be a sociable inter action space, blogs atomic modus operandi 18 seen to serve an study providing role. Based on the results of this research study, cosmetics companies deplete failed to earn these critical differences. Despite the fact that Facebook is considered a mystical inter in-person conference space, the findings pop the question that adding tangible c ar for in holding a presence on Facebook place yield irresponsible results on blade perceptions.Results from this study reveal the untapped dominance residing in hearty media provided strategies that dedicate consumer learns and desires ar critically considered. Chapter One Introduction 1. 1Enquiry Overview The purpose of this research was to ask the concussion of amicable media on disgrace perceptions victimization Estee Lauder as a campaign study. genial media in the context of this research study specifically refers to Facebook and Blogs. This research is qualitative in nature and is by and gigantic concentrate on proving the feasible solutions for Estee Lauder upholding leverage complaisant media.This enquiry everywhereview seeks to provide the endorser with an scheme of what to expect from the rest of the paper. Each chapter of the study is briefly summarised to as to give this. The first chapter of the study opens up with a comprehensive introduction to the study . This section leads the reader into the study by providing the essential background and exc do of the study. More everyplace, the aims and objectives without which the paper would ca enforce no burster be laid out in this chapter and equally great be the research questions which the research seeks to answer.The subsequent chapter thence delves into literature review of existing material on the subject of run awayer media and disfigurement perceptions, and where executable, literature on cosmetic merchandise was in any case investigated. The purpose of this chapter was to pee solid theoretical run agroundation from which the rest of the study could be reinforced. Additionally, chapter two is aimed at ensuring that the ‘wheel is non re-invented’ where definite germane(predicate) subjects had earlier(prenominal)ly been researched and could thitherfore upraise this study. Chapter is primarily concerned with research methodology employ in the study.Imp ortantly, chapter attempts to rationalise the chosen research path. provided on to this, the research paradigm, the selected research instruments as well as the sampling methods, ethical considerations and pilot study ar discussed in this chapter. This chapter provides the reader with a affluent understanding of the way in which the research aims and objectives be bridged with the direction the study takes. Chapter four is basically decocted on presenting the data and then analysing it. More interestingly, in chapter four the reader is taken through the data collection and analysis functioning.It is in this section that the research questions atomic number 18 mainly addressed. Thematic analysis, which is the selected data analysis tool for this research study is discussed and salutaryified at the same meter; alternative analysis tools deemed to be unsuitable for the study be discussed thitherin. The study leave offs with a chapter which put ups feasible recommendations to Estee Lauder concerning the way in which societal media fire be existingistically leveraged in order to positively bushel grass perceptions among its tar rag interview.These recommendations atomic number 18 based on the empirical findings from this research study, discussed in the prior chapter. Importantly, chapter five seeks to examine the findings of this research in singing to the research aims and objectives set out at the graduation course session of the study. 1. 2enquiry Aims and Objectives The purpose of this study is to investigate the electric shock of hearty Media sites on grade perceptions, with specific revolve serious close on the cosmetics industry using Estee Lauder as a case study.This study go forth score a two-facet approach. It result analyse the impact of picture show of cosmetics brand names, on neighborly Media sites from the watch of sum generated by consumers or general members on Facebook and blogs; and on the opposite hand, th is study go awaying investigate the impact of content generated by cosmetics companies. Consumer generated content, in grouchy through blogs and ‘conversational’ interactions on Facebook by way of mortal or private expositions, status updates and photographs.Company (brand) generated content will specifically be foc habitd on fan pageboys bring forthd by cosmetics companies; using Estee Lauder as a case study. This research aims to achieve the sideline objectives. 1. To review extant conceptual models and theoretical frameworks related to br differently media and brand perceptions 2. To evaluate Facebook and consumer blogs in their role as source classifys on consumers 3. To take root optimal strategies to improve sales and brand reputation of cosmetics through an increase presence on mixer media platforms; specifically Facebook and blogs. 1. 3enquiry QuestionsIn order to assess the potence of cordial media platforms as a path of influencing brand perce ptions of cosmetics, using Estee Lauder as a case study; the sideline questions must be answered through this research study. 1. What role do honorable mention gatherings play in the corrupt decision-making process of cosmetics? 2. Is there a link amongst painting of brands on Facebook and blogs the consumer’s propensity to leveraging cosmetics? 3. Are brotherly media sites, specifically Facebook and blogs effective market tools when used in closing off in the absence of monolithic merchandising programs? 1. precept of the study Marketers argon presently set near with the ever-increasing challenge of creatively developing conference techniques that will in effect spend a penny their target audience. Where in former long period, consumers did not live gateway to a wide array of carrefour readiness or choices, immediately; consumerism is dominating all conniptions of life (Rahman and Rahaman; 2008). Industry expert, Raphael Viton (2009) postulates that genial media selling strategies work best for â€Å"high interlocking” categories where study, functionback and testimonials from trusted sources play an distinguished role in buying decisions.He further posits that this being the case for smash harvestings coiffures companionable media â€Å" immaculate for cosmetics” Viton (2009). What has been clearly evident over recent stratums is that although numerous cosmetics companies crap do efforts to subscribe to well-nigh presence on friendly media sites, very few ar truly connectd and many argon un roaring in their approach. some such companies embarked on a affectionate media marketing campaign in the height of digital euphoria exactly did little to slide fastener in order to maintain these campaigns.According to research conducted by Forrester Research (2009) conventional publicize is on the decline with the rise of favorable media in the UK and the USA. This research further exhibits th at brotherly Media expending will increase to $3,113 (in cardinals) in 2014 from $716 in 2009 awarding a compound annual growth rate of 34% †the highest percentage gain in the marketing mix. This outlay activity besides ranks it as the third intimately prominent program behind search marketing and march advertising.Edelman (2010) proposes, â€Å"Though marketing strategies that focused on manufactureing brand aw atomic number 18ness and the draw of leverage worked pretty well in the old, consumer touch points hold changed in nature. For example, in many categories today the various(prenominal) to a greater extent or less queenful influence to buy is mortal elses advocacy. Social Media presents marketers with a less costly pith of micro-targeting their audience effectively. Whereas as previously, exorbitant budgets were indispensable for potty gift, kindly media is able to achieve the same at a fraction of the cost.A paradigm shift has authorizered wh ere consumers atomic number 18 getting product entropy and interacting, this revolution calls for an estimation on the discussion section of companies wishing to remain salient. Whereas more than than conventional promotional techniques, specifically, television, receiving set and print advertising once dominated product promotions; offline channels atomic number 18 right off fetching over. Owen (2010) claims that, â€Å"Its important to concreteise that an expanding audience in mavin channel does not mechanically mean a decline in some other. â€Å"As frequently as cordial media marketing is on the rise, evidence proving the effectiveness of these platforms used in isolation is s tusht.Social media is a fairly modern discipline and many marketing managers ar uncertain on how to effectively approach it in terms of coupling it with conventional marketing methods. Evidence is equally meagre with regards to how brands’ exposure on brotherly media platforms affects their image either through brand fan pages or friend’s communication Galak and Stephen (2010) put forth that while kind media was once the domain of younger, tech-savvy, early adopter consumers who were meteoric to adopt novel technologies, it has now evolved into mainstream and burys a kind demographic spectrum.Today, 75% of profits-using adults in the United States be diligent on such social media Bernoff et. al. (2009). This large number of users makes it critical to understand not still(prenominal) how social media influences consumers, but in any case how it operates alongside traditionalistic media. Findings from this research study will add determine to the development of effective social media marketing strategies for cosmetics companies (brands) loss forward. 1. 5Scope and Limitations The generally accepted definition of Social Media spans to cover a wide spectrum of innumerable online tools.The extensiveness of existing social media platforms spans further than this research is able to cover. Financial restraints as well as judgment of conviction constraints inhibit this research study to cover the entire range of social media platforms ready(prenominal) today. This research will strictly concern itself with investigating social media in as outlying(prenominal) as it entangles Facebook and beauty blogs. The study will also be pu blaspheme focussed on the impact of brand perceptions on Facebook and blogs on the cosmetics industry using Estee Lauder as a case study.Moreover, data collected for this research will be express to what is accessible through Estee Lauder company pieces and lower-ranking training that is publically available. Lack of access to upcountry marketing and sales data whitethorn qualify the robustness of the Estee Lauder specific selective information. In admittance to the above stated restraints, in order to achieve a more focussed study, it was deemed necessary to head off the plethora of demographics that are also active on Facebook and blogs; consequently, this study will notwithstanding focus on the female consumers between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five that leverage cosmetics at least once a ca fetchar month.Consequently, some whitethorn regard the generalisation of these findings as infatuated or rather narrow. thither whitethorn be product specific performers that affect the outcome of these results as matching that to the cosmetics industry and not necessarily to other product categories across the board. There may also be factors that may uniquely affect spate inwardly that specific age group that will impact the outcome of the results of this research study. However, the findings of this study will contribute the understanding of social media on brand perceptions albeit for a specific industry.Notwithstanding the above-discussed limitations, this study will score a foundation on which to build on when organisations embark social media mar keting strategies to enhance their brand reputations. 1. 6Background of the study Boyd and Ellison (2008) qualify social media sites as â€Å"web-based serve that allow individuals to (1) wee-wee a public or semi-public profile inside a bounded system, (2) suppose a angle of inclination of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list of connections and those make by others within the system.The nature and nomenclature of these connections may go away from site to site. ” For the purposes of this research study, all mention of social media sites refers specifically to Facebook and Blogs. The research will consider both consumer and company (marketing) generated content on these sites. An increasing number of stack across the race and age spectrum are spending square amounts of conviction online, socialising with friends through a variety of social lucreing sites.Traditionally, visitors to these social meshing sites visited such sites primarily for the purpose of interacting with friends and publicly share-out details, comments and photographs of their lives. man beings are social and stick out an innate requirement or desire to feel accepted and to forgather in. Accordingly, they tip to be heavily influenced by the mass some them or with whom they spend the about clipping on making buy decisions. such(prenominal) batch cheat on in the type or relationships, including- family, friends, colleagues or even just casual acquaintances.Such groups of lot service form and shape perceptions of brands. The rallying cry used to define this group of admit is recognition group. Solomon et. al (2010) define a reference group as â€Å"an substantial or imaginary individual or group conceived of having signifi fecest relevance upon an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or behaviour. ” These are the plurality that consumers frequently rely on for product information they can trust. S tallen et. al finish up this concept further by explaining that, â€Å"decision-making is often influenced by the behavior of others.For instance, people frequently make a standardized decisions as their friends do (e. g. teenagers may choose to exhaust clothing that is identical to that of their buddies); while they also often choose differently than the hotshots they do not exchangeable (e. g. the clothing should not be identical to what is exhausted by â€Å"uncool” kids). ” As social media sites are where many people are now spending just about of their time, these interactions are now taking adjust on such platforms. Over time, the social media ornament has evolved into a space where a broad range of information is disseminated.Consumers are now looking to these sites for product information that they can rely on from trusted sources-friends and family online. Thus, social media sites contrive in themselves, evolved to blend a â€Å"reference groupâ € as such. Casteleyn et. al (2008) suitably notes that the information that people display on their Facebook pages is constructed to advance their face-to-faceity to their friends and to the rest of the world. More often than not, these are the ‘desired’ perceptions that people would kindred others to have of them.N whizztheless, a myriad of information is propagated through these channels and r individuallyes a wide spectrum of people beyond any geographic borders. This type of information dissemination is known as online Word of Mouth (WOM). WOM is comm still delimitate as an unpaid form of promotion in which a satisfied customer tells other people how some(prenominal) they like a product or service or even share a positive experience. The same is applicable in a prejudicious sense, in which case a customer may have had a distasteful experience with a business, product or service and shares that with their online internet.Cheema and Kaikati (2010) propose that word of spill (WOM) communication is central to the exchange process as consumers often rely on others for economic aid with purchases, especially for products with high financial or mental risk. Several studies have empirically demonstrated that WOM is more persuasive than traditional media channels Godes et. al. (2005) WOM is considered to be virtuoso of the nearly credible forms of promotion because a person puts their reputation on the line every time they make a recommendation and that person has nothing to gain but the pastime of being heard.Traditionally the disperse of WOM was limited to those within one’s geographic area and was bound to a close net of people with whom a relationship was shared. In upstart times, the proliferation of the net has expanded the network exponentially. The growth of the Internet and specially the speedy increase in touristyity of social networking sites as a preferred medium of communication has broken down the boundaries that once limited WOM communication.As a result of this, coupled with the recent surge in technological developments worldwide, peculiarly pertaining to the Internet and continuously travel social media sites- traditional marketing seems to be losing power and space with a majority of companies. The cosmetics industry is one that has had a significantly increased presence on social media sites. Extensive fan pages have been created on Facebook by both companies and consumers; wishing to share new product information, product experiences and recommendations. Similarly, there has been an equally tidy growth of beauty and cosmetics blogs.The definition of cosmetics is considered to comprise of skin care products (body and nervus facialis), make up, personal care products including deodorants, body washes and soaps. From this point on, for the purposes of this research study, all reference to cosmetics includes solitary(prenominal) skincare products (body and facial) and make up . Typically, cosmetics are advertised in calendered fashion and beauty magazines as well as on television. However, at present, beauty product marketers are searching for new ways to expand their consumer reach beyond the traditional avenues of fashion and beauty magazines.According to Decoursey and Sloan (2009) â€Å"Concerns, particularly for smaller companies, include magazine clutter, increased ad rates and policies concerning rotation of advertisers in prime space. And well-nigh all marketers worry about harried consumers, who have less spare time to pore over fashion and beauty books. ” As a result of the above, social media sites have emerged as an increasingly popular avenue for beauty product marketers to look for as a medium to reach their consumers, where social media sites form part of the consumers’ reference group.Consequently, the following research study aims to assess the impact of social media sites on brand perceptions of cosmetics products, u sing Estee Lauder as a case study. Further to this, the changing role of social media sites as consumption reference groups for brand exposure and product sales of cosmetics brands will be analysed. 1. 8 drumhead This chapter comprehensively introduced the research study. It provided an overview of the study by stating the aims and objectives of the research and providing the rationale of the work.Finally the chapter closed with a discussion of the range of a function and limitations and the background of this study. Chapter Two seeks to systematically investigate extant literature on the affair. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE refreshen 2. 1INTRODUCTION The focus of this section of the paper delves deeper into present research that has been conducted in fields related to the area of focus of this study as laid out in the preceding chapter. The purpose is to gather theoretical literature to make for a solid study in concert with the data that will be collected in this investigation.Rese arch in the area of social media sites and consumer behaviour has only recently become of great interest to researchers in the past three to five years. The reason is two-fold 1) although social media sites have been somewhat since the late nineties; they’ve only recently started to truly flourish in the past few years. 2) Brand marketers started observeing such sites as a suitable channel to pass away with their consumers over well-nigh the same period. To begin with, this chapter will explore a conceptual illumination of the terms social media in the way it is intended for this paper.Following that will be an comment of brand perception in the way that it relates to and will be studied in this research. In auxiliary to this, further relevant literature on the topic will provide a broader scope into the subject under research will also be considered and examined. 2. 2Conceptual Clarifications Although social media is a relatively new construct in the communication worl d, a great many researchers and authors have provided their own definitions of what it can be defined as (Chung and Austria, 2010; Dutta, 2009; Hoffman, 2004; Cova & Pace, 2006 Jones, 2009).As varied as the understandings may be from author to author, one thing remains ordered; social media is growing at a phenomenally rapid pace. Furthermore social media has revolutionised the way in which people communicate and that brands communicate with their consumers. Chung and Austria (2010) postulate that Social media includes various methods of online communication such as social networking, user-sponsored blogs, multimedia sites, company-sponsored websites, collaborative websites as well as podcasts.This definition includes just about the entire scope of the activities that a majority of individuals who participate in online communication theory would be involve with. Dutta (2009) further reiterates this point by stating â€Å"it’s no secret that social media†interna tional, open, transparent, non-hierarchical, interactional, and real timeâ€are changing consumer behaviour and employment expectations. ” It is becoming increasingly difficult and in some cases, impossible to follow traditional communication structures of non-transparency and power structure when people communicate via social media platforms.This is particularly real of business communication. Consumers now have more access to information than they ever had before. Hoffman (2004) supports the above control, â€Å"the Internet makes available numerous information sources that consumers may draw on as they search for information and construct choices about commercial offerings. These information sources include social media sites, online product reviews (either by peers or experts), and uncensored in-depth product information on a variety of Websites, among many other sources. Cova & Pace (2006) put orth that â€Å"consumers in consumer-generated brand communities take to become influential participants and regard brands as ‘ be to us’ and not as companies that supposedly own them. They are driven by a comparable passion or ethos to form and engage in online brand communities, thereby producing their own cultural meanings around brands. Social media is a fundamental shift in the way we discover and share information. It provides individuals and particularly retailers with the faculty to cultivate and have ongoing conversations and touch points with their customers and capability customers.Every retailer has a unique tribe of customers or a niche group of consumers. Social media helps carry that group and engage with them like never before. Jones (2009) summarises it well in stating that â€Å"Social media essentially is a phratry of online media where people are conversationing, participating, sharing, networking, and bookmarking online. ” From the above, it is evident that social media sites as a construct have evo lved over time to encompass a considerably wider scope of the consumers’ online experience. When consumers make a purchase, they are buying more than just the product; they are buying into the brand.Keller (1993) maintains the above statements by putting forth that brand perceptions are attributes in consumer memory that are linked to the brand name. Solomon et. al (2010) defines perception as the process by which stimuli are selected, organised or interpreted. Marketers play a significant role in shaping and delineate brand perceptions in consumers. Findings from several research studies previously conducted indicate that brand perceptions play a pivotal role in the consumer purchase experience because they are said to influence consideration and evaluation, and therefore ultimately, purchase (Nedungadi 1990; Keller 2003).Several factors may influence brand perception, the factors include but are not limited to elements such as; determine of the product, the way in which the product is packaged, where the product is sold, reviews and feedback by reference groups on the product, and indeed how product information is disseminated or advertised. This research study will explore the impact of social media sites, namely Facebook and blogs on brand perceptions- including but not exclusively the above-mentioned elements that often shape it.This review will be focussed on three aspects of the impact of social media on consumer purchasing behaviour as researched in previous studies: 1) The History of Social Media 2) The impact of WOM through social media sites 3)The role of panorama attracters and faith seekers on social media sites as reference groups 4) Shopping as a social activity on social media sites 2. 3history of social media There are opposing schools of persuasion as to when social media was born. Some argue that social media did not begin with computers, and that it was born on â€Å"line” specifically on the phone.The era of Phone phre aking or the Rogue exploration of the telephone network of the mid-fifties was a period when techno-geeks-people who were very clued up on technology- began to investigate ways to allow them to make scanty or cheap calls. â€Å"These early social media explorers create â€Å"boxes” which were plazamade electronic devices that could generate tones allowing them to make step down calls and get access to the experimental back end of the telephone system. Borders (2009) temporary hookup on the other hand, others argue that social media came in considerably more recent years.Boyd and Ellison (2007) claim that â€Å"the first recognizable social network site launched in 1997. SixDegree. com allowed users to create profiles, list their Friends and, graduation in 1998, surf the Friends lists. Each of these features existed in some form before SixDegrees, of course. For instance, profiles existed on most major dating sites and many community sites. Classmates. com allowed peop le to affiliate with their high school or college and surf the network for others who were also affiliated, but users could not create profiles or list Friends until years later. SixDegrees. com was the first to combine these features. As defined by Boyd and Ellison (2007), the generally accepted present-day(prenominal) understanding of social media and what it has become would however suggest that these platforms as we interpret them today, concurs with the latter date of origin. 2. 3. 1ORIGINS OF FACEBOOK Facebook was before born out of the trivial concept of allowing students to jurist each other based on their facial appearance. Over a relatively brief period, Mark Zuckerberg-founder of Facebook evolved the platform and introduced innovative ideas into the network, and added some useful features like a comments section, amongst other things.Within a few months most of the schools and universities in the United States and Canada were on board, and a astonishingly large number of people had joined Facebook. In September 2006, the network was opened to any individual who had an email address and was over the age of 13. Subsequently, Facebook quick grew into the most popular social networking website. 2. 3. 2ORIGINS OF BLOGGING Miller and stake (2010) define a blog as a website containing dated entries, or posts, presented in reverse-chronological order.Blog features commonly include archives (previous posts, typically grouped by month and year), a blogroll (a list of recommended blogs), and a reader comment section. Today, most blogs are interactive, allowing visitors to parting comments and even message each other via widgets on the blogs and it is this interactivity that distinguishes them from other motionless websites. Brown et. al (2007) acknowledge that word of mouth (WOM) communication is a major part of online consumer interactions, particularly within the surround of online communities.The relative simplicity required to set up and participate in a blog allows for any individual that has a sanctioned understanding of how a computer works to be involved in this online activity. Many blogs provide comment or news on a particular subject; others function as more personal online diaries. A typical blog combines text, images, and links to other blogs, Web pages, and other media related to its topic. The ability of readers to leave comments in an interactive format is an important part of many blogs. Increasingly, blogs are now acclivitous as a new form of interactive advertising tool on the Internet.Cho and Huh (2008) The origins of modern blogging are often a point of great contention. There is a school of thought that believes that the ‘Mosaics whats new’ page in 1993 was the first weblog. The ‘Mosaics whats new’ in 1993 a list of links some people passed onto others. However, it wasnt until December 1997 that Jorn Barger coined the term â€Å"weblog” in his Robot Wisdom Weblog. In 1998, only a handful of blogs existed, and many of the bloggers knew each other and linked to each others sites. Rebecca Blood, author of The Weblog Handbook, notes that one superior site listed only 23 blogs in universe at the beginning of 1999.The media started noticing blogs later in 1999 and move upkeep to the phenomenon. But it was the proliferation of free weblog-creation programs in 1999 that made blogging into a hugely popular pastime. Before this parcel was widely available, most weblogs were hand-coded by web developers and others who taught themselves HTML. The new programs made it easy for anyone to create their own weblog. Blogger was released in August 1999 and was an immediate hit. This simple weblog employment allows users to create any kind of weblog they desire.By October 2000, Blogger users were creating 300 new blogs a day, and the Blogger directory had over 5,500 blogs listed. In November of the same year, the 10,000th Blogger weblog was created. As of 2002, Blo gger claimed over 750,000 users. The rise of tools like Blogger also changed the content of weblogs. While they had begun as link-driven sites offering alternative viewpoints on news and other subjects, weblogs began to collide with online journals. Blogger-style tools allowed links and commentary to right away grow into longer essays and diaries on the Web.Online journals had existed before this, but weblog drills made journals easier to manage for those who didnt know HTML. 2. 4The impact of WOM through social media sites Both scholars and practitioners of marketing are particularly interested in WOM communication behavior in the context of online communities because of the extraordinary popularity, growth, and influence of such communities. Arndt et. al (1967) defines WOM as a consumer-dominated channel of marketing communication where the sender is independent of the market.It is therefore perceived to be more reliable, credible, and trustworthy by consumers compared to firm-i nitiated communication theory. Some literature reviews of studies in the field of social media sites reveal that the rapid break up of WOM on such sites concerning products and brands is one of their most distinguishing benefits. â€Å"A key finding from research indicates that 10% of new consumer packaged goods (CPG) account for 85% of viral buzz, but this does not necessarily indicate a direct link with sales generation. Niederhoffer. (2007) Furthermore, the once accepted view that word of mouth influence comes only from the elite, extremely connected few has been challenged. Consumption-related online communities essentially represent WOM networks, where individuals with an interest in a product stratum interact for information such as purchase advice, to affiliate with other like- minded individuals, or to participate in complaint or compliment interactions (Cothrel, 2000; Kozinets, 1999; Hoffman and Novak, 1996).While it can be argued that the WOM communication going on within these online communities has limited social presence in the traditional sense, these communities provide information and social support in both specialized and broadly based relationships, and are becoming an important supplement to social and consumption behavior. Wellmanet. al. (1996) A study conducted by Cyber Atlas (2001), for example, cited 84% of Internet users having contacted at least one online community.The popularity of these emerging consumption-focused online communities, and the WOM communication going on within them, highlights a need for increasing scholarly attention to be paid to online WOM communication. Smith et. al (2007) state that â€Å"Research suggests that most people are moderately connected and are as willing as the highly connected to share marketing messages. ” Increased accessibility to the Internet and and so, social media sites has exacerbated the connectivity of people through an increased number of touch points such as alert phones .Whereas previously people who did not own or have access to personal computers or home Internet connectivity, were not able to access social media sites, now through their cell phones they are active participants on such sites. This research proposes that people have an innate desire to share messages with one another-including marketing communications. Social media sites have a unique distinguishing factor that traditional marketing methods lack and that is an ability to set about and enable two way dialogue between companies and their consumers and vice versa.An added advantage of this two-way dialogue is that it is possible for it to take place in real time and instantaneously. Consumers on these platforms are able to engage with companies that were traditionally out of reach to them on matters concerning their brands or products. Likewise, companies (brands) are able to gain insights into their customers and customers’ perspective, as well as directly address any issues or concerns at hand. In some cases, consumers engage with one another without the brand intervening at all; sharing opinions and experiences.In the same breath however, John Marshall Roberts, communications strategist and Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Worldview Learning, training and Research Company for change makers, highlighted the importance of the need for transparency and honesty, he warns that â€Å"half-truths and ‘green washing’ are quickly exposed on today’s social media networks. ” It is imperative that companies with a presence on social media sites maintain an uttermost level of uprightness in their communication with consumers, as the truth can almost always be uncovered.In such cases, a positive reputation that a brand may have built over many years can be destroyed in a matter of days and indeed in an instant. Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) in one of the earliest research studies on WOM cogitate that WOM two times more effective tha n radio advertisements, four times more than personal selling, septet times more than print advertisements. This research, was investigating traditional WOM in the absence of social media and indeed the Internet. Such WOM was bound by geographical location, as people were limited to the people that they were physically able to interact with.The Internet and indeed, the exponential growth of social media sites, have eradicated this constraint. Trusov et. al. (2009) find that WOM referrals have a strong impact on new customer acquisition. In their research, they conclude that the effectiveness of WOM referrals on social media sites have resulted in a direct positive effect on sales of products. The creation of social media has meant that WOM can be directly tracked in relation to its impact of consumer behaviour with regards to individuals’ decision-making process. There are several motivations that lead consumers’ WOM referral behaviour.These two motivating factors ha ve found to be the primary drivers such as extreme delight or dissatisfaction (Dichter 1966; Richins 1983; Yale 1987), commitment to the firm (Dick and Basu 1994) and novelty of the product (Bone 1992). When a consumer has had an exceptionally pleasing experience with a brand, or on the other hand, a particularly unpleasant one they are more plausibly to share this with as many of their peers as possible. Depending on the experience, this could lead to extreme benefit on the part of the company behind the brand or it could be detrimental to its image.Equally significant is the level of loyalty that a consumer may have to a brand or company. Once a consumer has a reached a academic degree of extreme brand loyalty, they develop a deep connection with the brand as they would with a person. There have been various schools of thought on the motivating influences on spread of WOM. One of these was that consumers who communicate marketing messages to other consumers were previously assu med to engage in this behavior as a result of selflessness or reciprocity or to attain high status (Dichter 1966; Engel, Kegerreis, and Blackwell 1969; Gatignon and Robertson 1986).However, according to findings conducted by Kozinets et. al. (2010), the motivators are more multifaceted including the individual’s reputation, specifically at whether they are opinion leaders or opinion seeker; this topic will be discussed in greater detail further on in the next section of the literature review chapter. Additionally, their research study suggests that the sharing of WOM marketing messages is â€Å"personal in a commonly appropriate manner. ” Therefore, advocating that WOM is heavily influenced by personal characteristics of an individual in a communal setting.Wiedmann et. al. (2007) address the question of why certain personal sources of information have more influence than others to identify general market-place influencers and use them for more effective product and message diffusion. They support that factors such as source expertise (Bansal and Voyer 2000; Gilly et al. 1998), tie strength (Brown and Reingen 1987; Frenzen and Nakamoto 1993), demographic likeness (Brown and Reingen 1987), reference group influence (Bearden and Etzel 1982) and perceptual simile (Gilly et al. 998) have been identified as important antecedents of WOM influence. 2. 5The role of opinion leaders and opinion seekers on social media sites as reference groups Bearden et. al. (1989) state that the pervasive use of spokespeople in product and service endorsements reflects the widely held whimsey that individuals who are admired or who belong to a group to which other individuals aspire can exercise an influence on information processing, attitude formation, and purchase behaviour. Consumers influence other consumers in numerous ways.They act as models that inspire imitation among those who observe their purchase and consumer behaviour, either directly or indirectly. F lynn et. al (2001) propose that consumers spread information through word of mouth, as consumption is a major topic of social communication. They further influence one another by directly giving out advice and verbal direction for search purchase and use. Research reveals that the time spend online and the benefits pertaining to product information and brand awareness for consumers are impacted on by individual personality traits.Personality traits in this context are discussed as they pertain to â€Å"opinion leaders” and â€Å"opinion seekers”. Solomon et. al (2010) crystalise the term opinion leaders by defining them as â€Å"people who are knowledgeable about products and whose advice is taken seriously by others. ” These people tend to be respected in their knowledge of specific products and hold great social power, as people tend to go to them for recommendations and advice. horizon seekers on the other hand â€Å"are more plausibly to talk about prod ucts with others and to solicit others’ opinions as well. Solomon et. al (2010) Research conducted by Acar and Polonsky (2007) reveal that â€Å"gender and extroversion previse online social network size and time worn out(p) online; that opinion seekers spend more time online and have larger networks relative to opinion leaders; and that opinion leaders are more likely to communicate their brand use online” This research further found the â€Å"mediating role of opinion leadership and opinion want in explaining the impact of general personality traits online brand communication and social networking. ”From this definition it is ushered that although people may seek information from various sources, there are certain individuals whose advice carries more weight than others. touch leaders also tend to be socially active and highly interconnected in their community. Opinion seekers on the other hand, are often seen to be followers of opinion leaders. They are constantly in search of information from others. This could explain the reason that they would be most active online as revealed in research discussed above by Acar and Polonsky (2007).Research conducted by Aaker (1991) and Keller (1993) concurs that the set of associations consumers have about a brand is an important agent of brand equity. According to the findings from this research, consumers gain a certain level of psychological benefit from using or associating with certain brands. Consequently, the way in which the opinion leader is perceived will have a posture on the brand perception to those that interact with him.Escalas and Bettman (2003) found that â€Å"students are more are more likely to develop a self-brand connection when there is a strong usage association between a reference group and the brand and there is a strong connection between the reference groups and the consumer’s self-concept. ” Therefore, in this research, if a student has aspiration or actual associations with a certain reference group, whichever brand(s) that are popular within that group or have a high usage rate within that group will in turn have a level of appeal to that student.It stands to reason then, that with the winding amounts of time dog-tired online by consumers, and the loads of information imparted particularly by opinion seekers, that social media sites would now form a pivotal role of this brand reference and purchase decision making construct. Social media sites have in themselves evolved dramatically over recent years, occupying a more extensive space in today’s society. The advancement of social media has allowed it to reach a point where it could be considered to play a pivotal role in consumer interaction with reference groups.Childers and Rao (1992) put forth that the reference- group construct has supplanted the plan of group membership as one that explains group influence on individual behaviour. An important point to note is t hat the relationship between an individual and a reference group should be motivationally and psychologically significant for the influence to be considerable. Lessig and Park (1978) identified and examined three motivational reference group functions (RGFs) that lend themselves intimately to the proposition of social media sites as reference groups.The functions are: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive. These two researchers defined the terms in the following way. â€Å"An informational reference group imposes no norms on the individual. Instead, an influence is internalized if it is perceived as enhancing the individuals knowledge about his environment and/or his ability to cope with some aspect of it. Thus, the likelihood that an individual will accept information from this reference group as evidence of honesty increases if he feels uncertainty associated with the purchase and/or lacks relevant purchase related experience. In line with this thinking, consumers in the process of purchasing products may visit Facebook or a blogging site in order to get product information, often from people with whom they have a personal relationship or connection. The influence of a utilitarian reference group on the other hand as outlined by the research conducted by Lessig and Park (1978) refers to â€Å"influence on individuals from a different approach from the informational reference group, these groups are seen to activate an individual to realize a reward or to avoid a punishment mediated by some other individual or group or is expected to conform to the others influence. The success of this phenomenon is achieved only if the individual feels that his actions are visible or will be known. Individual profiles are visible to everyone that participates on Facebook as well as blogs other than those with a private setting. Individuals subscribing to this form of reference group would tend to want as many people as possible to see their profile and thus d isplay their group associations. The third motivational reference group function explored by Lessig and Park (1978) is the value-expressive reference group. An individual utilizes a value-expressive reference group for the purpose of expressing himself and/or bolstering his ego to an outside world. The degree of cohesiveness or norm specificity of the reference group is irrelevant for this function. What is important is the psychological image associated with the group whether the group is real or imaginary. A number of well-known cases exist in which attempts have been made to use the value-expressive reference group function in promotions.Consider the following examples: the â€Å"young generation” promoted by Pepsi, the ‘seaman image” promoted by Schlitz and the â€Å"sophisticated and liberated woman” concept promoted by Virginia Slim cigarettes. ” Social media sites have now created a platform whereby people are enabled to create, aspire and join certain group. This information is more readily accessible and visible to the general public, thereby allowing individuals to display their affiliations with much more ease and higher reach.Childers and Rao (1992) further establish that from marketing and consumer- behaviour perspectives, the influence of reference groups on individual behaviour is often manifested in the types of products and brands purchased by individuals. 2. 6SHOPPING AS A SOCIAL ACTIVITY ON SOCIAL MEDIA SITES A third view into social media sites and consumer buying behaviour show that these two concepts are intrinsically connected as shopping or sales in themselves are a social activity based on mutual trust.According to Shih (2009), â€Å"relationships can sometimes even trump price as the deciding factor in purchase decisions. ” crop information from a trusted source like friends, family or other people that may form a part of one’s reference group could result in the purchase of a product jus t from the mere fact that the information is coming from that specific person. It has been accepted for decades that shopping is more than the mere acquisition of products but rather it is more about the enjoyment, experience and entertainment.Dennis et. al (2009) state that â€Å"as well as its functional role it includes the pleasure of browsing, impulse buying, discovering new shops, topic for casual conversation, focal point for planned and unplanned activities with other people. This statement is particularly true among women. Researchers have drawn attention to the importance of social and affiliation motivations for shopping. Shim and Eastlick (1998) Social networks lend themselves as an ideal platform for the above-mentioned motivations for shopping.These networks have drastically revolutionised society in the way people engage and socialise. â€Å"Nearly half (49%) of the thirty million Internet users in the UK have used social networking at least once in the last year an d 70% of people and households are Internet users. Dutton et. al. (2009) Young females are over-represented as users of social network websites. Research carried out by Lenhart and Madden (2007) account that 70% of females use social network sites and 48% of teens visit social network websites like Facebook daily.Findings from research conducted by comScore (2010) reveal that social media users spend, on average, one and a half times more time online than the typical web surfer. In fact, heavy Facebook users spent an average of $67 online during the first quarter of the yearâ€compared with less than $50 for the general netizen. Social networks essentially facilitate social shopping or social commerce as the terms tend to be used interchangeably to take place among users. Social Shopping is a method of shopping where shoppers friends and family become involved in the shopping experience.Social shopping attempts use technology to mimic the social interactions found in physical mal ls and stores. 2. 7cosmetics and social media Estee Lauder has demonstrated willingness and concept within the cosmetics category in terms of exploring social media sites to enhance brand perceptions and ultimately increase its sales. In 2009, Estee Lauder launched a business to consumer (B2C) social media marketing campaign for their cosmetics division, with their â€Å"Lets Play Makeover” initiative.As a prestigious and global skin care and Cosmetics Company, Estee Lauder saw an chance to tap into the increasing share of older women †mothers in particular †who were using social media. They thus created the Estee Lauder â€Å"Lets Play Makeover” Facebook application, which in essence is a realistic makeover tool. Women could upload their photos and use Estee Lauder products to create realistic make-up. This is a significant change to cosmetics marketing because it allows potential consumers to test and trial make-up in the secretiveness of their own hom es before making purchases.This innovative application saves time and also lets them experiment with make-up at their own leisure. The effectiveness of this application is underscored by how it also integrates the full shopping experience by indicating to users which specific makeup they are using, from the eye-shadow to foundation colour †and seals the deal by allowing them to purchase their chosen products online, thus making the purchase experience more convenient for the consumer. The sharing aspect of social media is also encouraged, as the application lets users share their makeovers and before/after shots with friends.Social media campaigns should not just be considered as a separate entity. Its effectiveness in B2C marketing especially can be enhanced with other marketing methods. This example in particular shows how to effectively tie in offline promotions with social media marketing. The underlying strategy with Estee Lauders â€Å"Lets Play Makeover” campaign is thus to use social media as the major point of purchase, but at the same time, offer alternatives for users to make purchases, ultimately allowing them to fully engage with their products and services whichever way they prefer.Proctor & Gamble’s Olay brand was another successful story in pioneering of cosmetics category of products to explore the use of online interactions through such sites. It rolled out an online interactive daybook for the Olay Regenerist anti-ageing skincare brand in 2006. The diary provided detailed information on the skin each week for the first eight weeks of product use, taking the consumer through the process, as the effects of the product were not immediately visible.Research conducted post this activity revealed that Olay had produced a four to six times higher intent to purchase among the target group, with 78% of the sample saying they had purchased the brand within the last year. According to a report by Stylophane (2010) â€Å"if a u ser joins the fan page as a result of viewing an advert, this action is logged on the advert itself, which means friends of the user can see this action, prompting them to also become a fan of the brand. ” Thus highlighting the effectiveness of the spread of WOM on such sites even in the most passive or subtle situations.Another successful cosmetics brand that has seen great success through its presence on Facebook is MAC. As at March 2010, MAC had the superlative number of fans (542,613) †more than double that of the second most popular brand, Carol’s Daughter. Nichol (2010) 2. 8SUMMARY This chapter was dedicated to the clarification and expansion of existing theoretical studies on the topic under research. The terms Social media and Brand perception were defined and clarified in the way in which they are intended for this study.Additionally, further research that offers a robust consolidation of theories to support the research at hand were examined and discusse d. CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3. 1INTRODUCTION The previous chapter comprehensively explored extant literature on the topic under research. Focal points of discussion in the preceding chapter were on conceptual clarification and literature most pertinent to the topic in this study. The core purpose of this chapter is to expound and justify the chosen methodology of collection of primary data for this research.This chapter identifies research aims and objectives in relation to the research methodology employed. Moreover, this chapter discusses the chosen research paradigm or ism as well as its motives. Following onto this, the chapter explores the research approach, research strategy options as well as the selected data collection methods. Finally, this chapter deliberates the strengths and weaknesses of the research methodology for this study. 3. 2RESEARCH AIMS AND OBJECTIVESIt is imperative that the research aims and objectives mentioned at the beginning of the study are reiterated at this stage of the study as they form a crucial infrastructure of the work going forward from this point. The research aims and objectives feed into the research methodology selected for the research. Therefore, at this point, it is prudent to affirm that the purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of Social Media sites on brand perceptions, with specific focus on the cosmetics industry using Estee Lauder as a case study.This research rests on the following aims and objectives; first of all the study set to review extant conceptual models and theoretical frameworks related to social media and brand perceptions. The following objective was to evaluate Facebook and consumer blogs in their role as reference groups on consumers. The final objective is to determine optimal strategies to improve sales and brand reputation of cosmetics through an increased presence on social media platforms; specifically Facebook and blogs. The above mentioned aims and objectives guide the researcher in the formulation and design of the research methodology.It is paramount that these aims and objectives are assiduously concomitant with the methodology employed in order to ensure the success of this research study. 3. 3RESEARCH ism Galliers (1991) defines research philosophy as a vox populi about the way in which data about a phenomenon should be gathered, analysed and used. Epistemology which is, what is known to be true, is perverted to doxology, what is believed to be true encompasses the various philosophies of research approach. Latu (2007) elaborates this rationale in stating that the purpose of science, then, is the process of transforming things believed into things nown: â€Å"doxa to episteme”. As discussed by Hussey and Hussey (1997), there are two key research philosophies that have been identified in science and those are positivist (scientific) and interpretivist (antipositivist). According to Weber (2004), positivists attempt to buil d knowledge of a pragmatism that exists beyond the gentle mind. Their research is based on a belief that gay experience of the world reflects an objective, independent reality and that this reality provides the foundation for valet knowledge.On the other hand, interpretivists are attuned to the belief that knowledge they build reflects their individual structure of interpretation that is based on distinct world experience, background, culture and other such divergent factors that may impact the way in which they interpret results from their studies. Interpretivists in other words, try to make sense of the world, acknowledging that their sense-making activities occur within the framework of their life-worlds and the particular goals they have for their work.Knowledge is built through social construction or interpretation of the world. This research study is conducted from an interpretivist point of view. The results and findings of this study rely heavily on gentle interpretati on as it relates to human perception which is essentially, the way people psychologically organise the world around them. There is a significant human socialisation interpretation involved in the analysis of the way in which social media sites impact on brand perceptions of individuals.The term perception by its very definition is based on an individual’s interpretation of the world around them. It would then stand to reason that an interpretivist research philosophy would be employed in the conducting of this research study. As is stated by Levin (1998), positivists believe that reality is electrostatic and can be observed and described from an objective viewpoint; it would seem a fundamentally damage approach to take on a positivists view when conducting this research-considering the subjectivity of the topic under research of human perception.This study is involved with the interpretation of brands exposed on Facebook and blogs by various individuals. The way in which on e individual construes the presence of cosmetics brands on Facebook and blogs will incessantly be different from the way another may view it- based on their differing understanding of the world. The human element which is inextricably associated with the topic under research could be overlooked in the investigation were it to be conducted from a positivist philosophy.Therefore, in investigating the impact of social media on brand perceptions, the research philosophy germane and most appropriate is interpretivism. The two principal disadvantages of a positivist application to the study at hand are these; firstly, its quest for rigid laws and perfect standards of scientific methodology and analysis are unconvincing when dealing with social phenomenon. Positivism standards are meant to be applicable repeatedly overlooking the variations in human behaviour. The second drawback is positivism’s inconsideration of the unobjective and unique aspects of social phenomenon.Whereas, i n dealing with the interpretation of individuals’ brand perceptions, the researcher must factor in varying social backgrounds, brand and brand communication preferences, natural scientists w\r\n'